Policing is a highly demanding and stressful profession. Virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a promising tool for enhancing stress management programs, including for police officers. The use of VR in combination with biosensors enables measurement of psychophysiological responses such as peripheral temperature (PT) and skin conductance level (SCL). This study investigated the psychophysiological responses of police officers exposed to a VR scenario simulating a car accident. The study included a total of 63 police officers from the Public Security Police. Participants were divided into three groups based on their police divisions: the Investigation Brigade of Traffic Accidents, the Traffic Surveillance Squad (TSS), and a control group from the Lisbon Metropolitan Command. The results indicated that the VR environment effectively induced psychophysiological arousal, particularly in less experienced officers (TSS), that is, there were significant group differences in mean SCL and PT, showing this group with higher SCL and lower PT during the VR exposure. These results support the potential of VR as a stress inoculation strategy for training police officers and highlight the complex nature of stress responses that are influenced by individual factors and psychopathology.

Most individuals experience at least one traumatic event during their lifetime, which can lead to the development of psychopathological symptoms and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). First responders (e.g., police officers, firefighters, emergency medical professionals) are exposed to traumatic events daily, making them particularly vulnerable to developing such symptoms. Using an online questionnaire, this study aimed to compare self-reported exposure to traumatic events and the presence of psychopathological and PTSD symptoms between a sample from the general community (n = 137) and first responders (n = 672) residing in Portugal. We also sought to identify factors associated with the development of PTSD symptoms. Results showed that although first responders reported higher exposure to traumatic events, there were no significant differences in PTSD symptoms between first responders and the general community. However, general psychopathological symptoms, particularly anxiety and depression, were higher in the general community than among first responders. Symptoms of anxiety, depression, obsessive–compulsive tendencies, hostility, paranoid ideation, psychoticism, and personally experienced traumatic events emerged as significant predictors of PTSD symptoms, whereas demographic variables showed no significant predictive value. The potential influence of factors such as terror management theory, training and education, professional selection, the “hero lifestyle”, and the “police culture” is discussed, along with implications and directions for future research.

Most individuals experience at least one traumatic event during their lives, which can lead to the development of psychopathological symptoms and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. First responders (e.g., police officers, firefighters, emergency medical professionals) are exposed to traumatic events daily, making them more vulnerable to developing these symptoms. Using an online questionnaire, we aimed to compare self-reported exposure to traumatic events and the presence of psycho-pathological and PTSD symptoms between a sample from the general community (n=137) and first responders (n=672) residing in Portugal. We also aimed to identify factors associated with the de-velopment of PTSD symptoms. Results showed that, although first responders reported higher exposure to traumatic events, there were no significant differences in PTSD symptoms between first responders and the general community; However, general psychopathological symptoms (anxiety and depression) were higher in the general community than for first responders. Symptoms of anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive tendencies, hostility, paranoid ideation, psychoticism, and personally experienced traumatic events emerged as predictors of PTSD symptoms, while demographic variables showed no significant predictive value. We discussed the potential influence of factors like terror management theory, training and education, selection, the 'hero lifestyle,' and the 'police culture' on the results and explored directions for future research.

Background: Police and security professionals are routinely exposed to potentially traumatic events as part of occupational duties, placing them at increased risk for post-traumatic stress and broader psychological difficulties. This study aimed to identify latent classes of proximal traumatic exposure among Portuguese police/security professionals and examine their associations with PTSD symptoms and general psychological distress. Methods: A cross-sectional online survey was conducted with Portuguese police/security professionals (N = 644). Latent class analysis (LCA) was applied to 17 indicators of potentially traumatic events coded as directly experienced or witnessed, derived from the Life Events Checklist for DSM-5. PTSD symptoms were assessed using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5, and general psychological distress was assessed using the Brief Symptom Inventory. Exploratory receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses examined whether counts of proximal traumatic events could approximate the LCA-derived classes. Results: A three-class solution was identified, comprising low proximal exposure (37.3%), moderate proximal exposure (40.7%), and high proximal/cumulative exposure (22.0%) classes. The classes reflected a graded cumulative pattern of exposure across traumatic event categories, rather than clearly distinct qualitative configurations defined by specific event types. Higher exposure classes were associated with progressively higher PTSD symptoms and psychological distress, and these associations remained significant after adjustment for sociodemographic and occupational variables. Exploratory receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses showed that a simple count of proximal traumatic event categories closely approximated the empirically derived class structure within the present sample. However, the resulting thresholds are sample-specific, exploratory, and should not be interpreted as validated screening cutoffs. Conclusions: Proximal traumatic exposure among police/security professionals appears to follow a graded cumulative structure associated with increased PTSD symptoms and psychological distress. The person-centered analysis provided an empirical test of whether exposure was organized according to qualitatively distinct event configurations or primarily along a cumulative gradient. In this sample, cumulative exposure burden emerged as the dominant organizing dimension. The count-based approximation requires external validation before any screening or decision-making application can be considered.

Professionals working in high-risk occupations, such as firefighters and emergency medical personnel, are repeatedly exposed to potentially traumatic events that may affect both psychological functioning and decision-making under pressure. However, psychological responses to occupational stress are heterogeneous, and their implications for performance remain insufficiently understood. The present study adopted a person-centered approach to examine latent profiles of psychopathological symptoms and their associations with emotional, social, and behavioral functioning in a virtual reality (VR) emergency simulation. A sample of 395 Portuguese firefighters completed the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), measures of emotion regulation difficulties, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and perceived social support, and performed a VR-based medical emergency task assessing decision-making accuracy under stress. Latent profile analysis identified four distinct symptom profiles: Low Psychological Distress, Moderate Internalizing Distress, High Global Psychological Distress, and Mixed / Interpersonal Distress. Profiles differed significantly in emotion regulation difficulties, posttraumatic stress symptoms, perceived social support, and VR task performance. Notably, individuals characterized by a Mixed / Interpersonal Distress profile, marked by elevated interpersonal sensitivity, hostility, and paranoid ideation, committed significantly more decision-making errors in the VR simulation than those in the Low Psychological Distress profile. In contrast, high global psychological distress was not uniformly associated with poorer performance. These findings suggest that decision-making under stress in emergency contexts is shaped less by generalized psychopathology and more by specific interpersonal and affective symptom configurations. The study underscores the value of person-centered approaches and immersive VR methodologies for identifying psychologically meaningful risk patterns, with important implications for assessment, training, and targeted intervention in emergency service professions.