High mountain areas are critical for water security and natural hazard dynamics, as well as glacier and ecosystem conservation in a warming world. We present a brief account of the methodological steps for geomorphological mapping in mountain areas, including the required scale, the legends, technology, and software. We analyze the best imagery sources and their combination with fieldwork and geographical information systems (GIS), in performing accurate cartography. In addition, we present two case studies in which we apply several methods described previously. Firstly, we carried out a classical and digital geomorphological mapping of Cerro Chirripó (Talamanca Range). Secondly, we studied the Reserva Biológica Alberto Manuel Brenes (Central Volcanic Range), where we used UAVs to map high-resolution fluvial geomorphology. This methodological framework is suitable for future geomorphological surveys in mountain areas worldwide. Moreover, the case studies can give ideas on the application of these approaches to different mountainous environments.

The Aneto, located on the Maladeta Massif (Central Pyrenees), is the largest glacier of the Pyrenees. The glacier is 675 m long, occupies an area of 48.64 ha and has a maximum altitude of 3269 m. In this study, we present a detailed area, volume, ice thickness, and Equilibrium Line Altitude reconstruction of the glacier for different periods (LIA, 1957, 1983, 2000, 2006, 2015, and 2017) and analyze its retreat. To estimate the glacier extent during the LIA, the moraines were mapped by using photo interpretation techniques whereas for the recent stages digital satellite images and aerial photographs were used. Moreover, we estimated the topography of the glacier using a simple steady-state model that assumes a perfectly plastic ice rheology, which allowed reconstructing the theoretical ice profiles of the glacier. To reconstruct the ice surface, a digital elevation model was created and combined with the bedrock topography in order to obtain the ice thickness of each stage. The results of the study reveal a considerable retreat of the Aneto Glacier since the LIA. The length of the glacier has reduced from 1970 to 675 m from LIA to2017, and its tongue has retreated from 2385 to 3029 m a.s.l. Furthermore, the glaciated area has been reduced from 245 to 48.64 ha from LIA to 2017 and the ELA has risen from 2919 to 3139 m a.s.l. The data obtained indicates that in the LIA–2017 period the glacier volume has been reduced from 82.57 m × 10⁶ m³ to 3.48 m × 10⁶ m³ and the maximum ice thickness from 95 to 27m. We also reconstructed the climatic conditions, showing an increase in temperature of ~1.14°C from LIA to 2017. These data reveal a vast retreat of the glacier since the LIA, which has accelerated since the 1980’s and even more since the year 2000.

A detailed geomorphological map on a 1:10,000 scale is presented for a high mountain area in Gredos range (Iberian Central System). Only few detailed geomorphological maps of the range are available despite the wide diversity of landforms. The map was created with the aid of aerial photographs, satellite images, and 3D images and verified with field surveys. The landforms resulting were classified using the IGUL (Institute of Geography, University of Lausanne) legend system combined with the legend proposed by Peña et al. (1997). As a result, 40 landforms distributed over an area of 40 km² have been identified. The map shows the spatial distribution of different geomorphological processes that have modeled a wide variety of landforms. This variety of processes and landforms identified demonstrated that geomorphological cartography obtained by combining traditional image interpretation and GIS technology facilitates the production of geomorphological maps and the obtaining of valuable data for identify and understand surface processes and landforms.