Biomaterials and biomembranes play a crucial role in a variety of applications, particularly in the medical field due to their ability to mimic natural biological structures and functions. Crosslinkers play also an important role in enhancing the structural integrity and functionality of biomaterials and in the design of biomembranes. This review article explores the fundamentals of biomaterials and biomembranes, with a particular focus on the role of crosslinkers in biology, chemistry and medicine. We explore the various types of crosslinkers commonly used in biomaterials synthesis, examining their chemical structure, classification, and synthesis methods. Additionally, we analyze the biological properties of crosslinkers and their interactions, highlighting their biological impact, particularly in cellular behavior and cytotoxicity. This article further emphasizes recent advances and innovation, particularly in tissue engineering, drug delivery, and wound healing. Finally, we conclude by addressing current challenges and suggesting potential futures directions for research in this field.

Plasmonic nano-antennas have proven the outstanding ability of sensing chemical and physical processes down to the nanometer scale. Sensing is usually achieved within the highly confined optical fields generated resonantly by the nano-antennas, i.e., in contact to the nanostructures. In this paper, we demonstrate the sensing capability of nano-antennas to their larger scale environment, well beyond their plasmonic confinement volume, leading to the concept of “remote” (non contact) sensing on the nanometer scale. On the basis of a bowtie-aperture nano-antenna (BNA) integrated at the apex of a SNOM (Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy) fiber tip, we introduce an ultra-compact, moveable, and background-free optical nanosensor for the remote sensing of a silicon surface (up to distance of 300 nm). Sensitivity of the BNA to its large scale environment is high enough to expect the monitoring and control of the spacing between the nano-antenna and a silicon surface with sub-nanometer accuracy. This work paves the way towards an alternative class of nanopositioning techniques, based on the monitoring of diffraction-free plasmon resonance, that are alternative to nanomechanical and diffraction-limited optical interference-based devices.

The toxicity of metals such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) makes heavy metal contamination in food products a major health concern. The aim of this study is to measure the levels of Pb and Cd in yogurt samples that were collected from 11 distinct Lebanese locations and determine their compliance with the legal limits set by the European Commission (0.02 mg/kg for Pb and 0.005 mg/kg for Cd). A total of 165 yogurt samples were examined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). Interestingly, the findings showed that 10.9% of samples had Pb concentrations over the allowable limit; the highest amounts were observed in Baalbeck-Hermel (0.118 mg/kg), North Area (0.125 mg/kg), and South Lebanon (0.115 mg/kg). In addition, the highest detected concentrations of Cd were found in North Area (0.094 mg/kg), Baalbeck-Hermel (0.076 mg/kg), and Akkar (0.042 mg/kg), with 14.5% of samples above the limit. The results show regional differences in contamination, which are probably caused by industrial emissions, agricultural activities, and environmental pollution. To better understand the potential health implications, the estimated daily intake (EDI) of Pb and Cd through yogurt consumption was calculated and compared to international health-based guidance values. Although the EDI values suggest a low risk from yogurt alone, the findings highlight the importance of cumulative exposure and emphasize the necessity of regular monitoring and stricter implementation of food safety laws to decrease exposure to heavy metals through dairy intake.

This study investigates the presence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in 165 yogurt samples collected from farms across 11 Lebanese regions. As the first nationwide assessment of these contaminants in yogurt, it addresses a critical gap in Lebanon’s food safety monitoring. Levels of PCBs, ΣDDTs, ΣHCH, HCB, endosulfan, methoxychlor, and dieldrin were quantified, revealing widespread contamination. A total of 40.6% of samples recorded total PCB concentrations exceeding European maximum residue limits (MRLs), with a national mean of 39.26 ng/g fat. Keserwan, and North and South Lebanon showed the highest PCB contamination, likely linked to thermal power generation activities. For OCPs, mean concentrations of all tested compounds exceeded their respective MRLs across all regions. Levels of ΣDDTs surpassed the MRL in 100% of samples with the highest mean concentration at 376.79 ng/g fat, followed by endosulfan (70.32 ng/g fat) and β-HCH (65.32 ng/g fat). Elevated OCP levels were especially noted in Bekaa, Baalbek-Hermel, and South and North Lebanon, likely reflecting intensive agricultural practices and the ongoing use of contaminants. Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) indicated potential dietary exposure risks, particularly from PCBs, ΣDDTs, and ΣHCH. These findings underscore the urgent need for regulatory oversight and national food safety monitoring to ensure public health protection.

Globally, groundwater is a critical source of freshwater that supports drinking water, agriculture, and industry. Its protection is vital for long-term water safety and public health. In Lebanon, groundwater provides nearly half of the nation’s water supply; however, it faces significant challenges from unregulated extraction, poor infrastructure, and widespread contamination. The city of Tripoli is particularly vulnerable, where defective underground fuel storage tanks, unmanaged waste, and unrestricted well usage have led to alarming levels of toxins such as benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX). Such conditions pose serious risks to both water sustainability and human health, emphasizing the critical need for regular monitoring and effective regulation. This study aims to investigate the presence of BTX in the groundwater of Tripoli, Lebanon, and to quantify their compound concentrations using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. A total of 24 water samples were collected on multiple occasions from private wells during the winter, spring, and summer seasons and subsequently analyzed. Results indicated that BTX concentrations in many of the sampled wells, across most seasons, exceeded the maximum contaminant levels established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency for safe drinking water (0.005 ppm for benzene, 1 ppm for toluene, and 10 ppm for xylene), rendering the water unsuitable for drinking. The study revealed seasonal variations in BTX concentrations, with higher levels detected in spring and summer, and lower levels in winter, likely due to seasonal dilution effects from rainfall and infiltration. Among the BTX compounds, xylene exhibited the highest concentrations, followed by toluene, with benzene present at the lowest levels. The detection of BTX in the sampled groundwater clearly indicates pollution. Consequently, remediation measures are necessary to mitigate long-term health risks associated with these pollutants, and continuous monitoring of BTX levels is strongly recommended to effectively assess and manage groundwater pollution.