Fifth-generation (5G) networks enable railway digitalization but face signal degradation challenges in high-mobility environments. While the existing literature attributes degradation primarily to Doppler frequency shifts, this study presents empirical evidence challenging this paradigm. Analysis of 13.7 million 5G New Radio measurements across 370 km of Estonian railway reveals that visible cell density, not velocity, dominates signal quality degradation. Nine geographic hotspots exhibit 5.4–18.0 dB degradation at moderate velocities (54–66 km/h, mean 60.2 km/h) with zero high-speed measurements, excluding the Doppler effect as the reason behind service quality degradation. Cell complexity demonstrates a 3.25× stronger correlation with degradation (r = −0.390) than velocity (r = −0.120), consistent with automatic frequency control tracking instability under high cell ID churn rates (40–115 visible cells per location), though direct confirmation of this mechanism requires access to internal modem frequency-lock state data. Frequency band analysis shows that 700 MHz is optimal at 98.1% of locations, with a 19 dB advantage over 3.5 GHz. Degradation mechanism decomposition reveals within-cell effects (60%, 7.85 dB) and handover boundary effects (40%, 2–6 dB). The findings challenge velocity-centric optimization paradigms and recommend network planning focused on cell overlap reduction rather than Doppler compensation enhancement. Practical recommendations include 700 MHz prioritization, handover parameter optimization, and geographic targeting of identified hotspots for European railway 5G deployment.

This paper analyzes the exploitability, economic viability, and impact of fleet-based 5G network extensions implemented in maritime environments, focusing on the Baltic Sea and Mediterranean as a case study. Through cost–benefit analysis and business model validation, we demonstrate how multi-hop 5G connectivity can reduce communication costs while improving service quality for maritime operators. Our findings indicate that implementing vessel-based 5G relay stations can achieve 80–90% coverage in key maritime corridors with a break-even period of 2–3 years. The study reveals that combining vessel-to-vessel relaying with strategic floating base stations can reduce connectivity costs by up to 40% compared to traditional satellite solutions, while enabling new revenue streams through premium services. We provide a detailed economic framework for evaluating similar implementations across different maritime routes and suggest policy recommendations for facilitating cross-border 5G maritime networks and introduce key use cases value creation for network extension.

In the era of Industry 4.0, the digital transformation of industrial systems necessitates advanced wireless communication solutions that are both agile and secure. Private 5G networks, characterized by their unparalleled bandwidth, reduced latency, and fortified security, have emerged as a beacon of innovation in this paradigm shift. This study explores the feasibility of deploying private 5G networks across diverse enterprises, underpinned by a robust methodological framework. Drawing from contemporary research, it’s evident that while 5G promises transformative benefits for sectors like logistics, manufacturing, and autonomous vehicles, its adoption is riddled with challenges such as network oversaturation and frequency coordination. Analyzing 2006 companies, our findings reveal that only 103 enterprises align with the optimal criteria for private 5G network implementation, highlighting the intricate balance of spatial, economic, and regulatory considerations. This research not only offers a strategic roadmap for businesses and stakeholders but also positions private 5G networks as a pivotal tool for achieving operational excellence, enhanced data privacy, and seamless connectivity in the modern industrial landscape.

A well-performing road network is essential for modern society. But any road is nothing without its users—cyclists, drivers, pedestrians. Road network cannot be managed without knowing who the roads serve. The gaps in this knowledge lead to decisions that hinder efficiency, equality, and sustainability. This is why monitoring traffic is imperative for road management. However, traditional short-term traffic counting methods fail to provide full coverage at a reasonable cost. This study assessed the economic feasibility of drone-enabled traffic monitoring systems across Estonian urban environments through comparative spatial and economic analysis. Hexagonal tessellation was applied to 255 urban locations, identifying 47,530 monitoring points across 4077 grid cells. Economic modeling compared traditional counting costs with drone-based systems utilizing ultralight drones and nomadic 5G infrastructure. Monte Carlo simulation evaluated robustness under varying operational intensities from 30 to 180 days annually. Analysis identified an 8-point density threshold for economic viability, substantially lower than previously reported requirements. Operational intensity emerged as the critical determinant: minimal operations (30 days) proved viable for 9.0% of locations, while semi-continuous deployment (180 days) expanded viability to 81.6%. The findings demonstrate that drone-based monitoring achieves 60–80% cost reductions compared to traditional methods while maintaining equivalent accuracy (95–100% detection rates for vehicles, cyclists, and pedestrians), presenting an economically superior alternative for 67% of Estonian urban areas, with viability extending to lower-density locations through increased operational utilization.