Rocket engine nozzle blocks operate under extreme thermal and oxidative loads, requiring materials with high temperature resistance, dimensional stability, and a predictable lifetime without active cooling. This review provides a comparative overview of multimatrix composite materials-including C/C, C/SiC, SiC/SiC, MMC, and polymer-based ablative systems-representing the full spectrum of materials used in non-cooled rocket nozzles. The study highlights the evolutionary continuum from polymeric ablative systems to carbon, ceramic, and metallic matrices, demonstrating how each class extends operational limits in temperature capability, reusability, and structural integrity. Polymer and ablative composites serve as the foundation of thermal protection through controlled ablation and insulation, while carbon- and ceramic-based systems ensure long-term performance at ultra-high temperatures (>1600 °C). MMCs bridge these classes by combining strength, impact toughness, and thermal conductivity in transition zones. Particular attention is given to manufacturing technologies such as PIP, CVI, LPI, RS, powder metallurgy, casting, diffusion bonding, and filament winding, emphasizing their effect on microstructure, porosity, and lifetime. A practical selection matrix linking nozzle zones, mission profiles, and composite types is proposed, outlining trade-offs among performance, mass, lifetime, and manufacturability, and guiding the design of next-generation thermal protection and propulsion systems based on the multimatrix concept.

This study addresses the need for thermomechanically robust materials for high-temperature environments by investigating fabric-reinforced composites produced through polymer infiltration and thermal pressing using phenol-formaldehyde (PF) and epoxy (ER) resins. Experimental validation was required due to the lack of comparative data across different textile reinforcements under identical conditions. Seven technical fabrics—carbon, aramid, basalt, silica, fiberglass, asbestos, and a carbon/aramid hybrid—were used as reinforcements. Mechanical testing revealed that carbon- and hybrid fiber composites exhibited the highest tensile (up to 465 MPa) and compressive strengths (up to 301 MPa), particularly when combined with ER. Conversely, the use of PF generally resulted in a 30–50% reduction in mechanical strength. However, PF-based composites demonstrated superior thermal resistance, with the silica/PF combination showing the lowest back-face temperature (401 °C), up to 37% lower than other pairings. Thermal conductivity ranged from 0.041 to 0.51 W/m·K, with PF-based systems offering 6–12% lower values on average compared to ER-based analogs. Morphological analysis confirmed better interfacial bonding in ER composites, while PF systems showed higher structural integrity under thermal loading. Overall, the results emphasize the trade-offs between mechanical strength and thermal protection depending on the fabric–resin combination. Among all variants, the silica fabric with PF demonstrated the most balanced performance, making it a promising candidate for thermomechanical applications.

Study on the effect of plasticizers and thermoplastics on the strength and toughness of epoxy resins

This study explores the optimization of foam ceramic materials through experimental research and mathematical modeling. The goal was to enhance mechanical strength, thermal insulation, porosity, water absorption, and density by adjusting composition and firing conditions. Regression analysis and response surface methodology were used to assess the effects of loam, fly ash content, and the firing temperature. The optimal composition of 60–65% loam, 10% fly ash, and a firing temperature of 950–1000 °C yielded foam ceramics with a bulk density of 680–700 kg/m³, a compressive strength of 3.5–4 MPa, and a thermal conductivity of 0.135–0.140 W/(m·K). Controlled porosity (70–72%) enhanced insulation while maintaining structural integrity. X-ray diffraction confirmed mullite, quartz, and cristobalite phases, with mullite improving mechanical properties. This research demonstrates the potential of optimized foam ceramics for energy-efficient construction. Mathematical modeling and experimental validation provide a pathway for developing lightweight, high-performance ceramic materials. Future work should refine sintering processes, explore new additives, and evaluate the long-term performance.

Increasing strength of epoxide resin (ER) and carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) is an aim up-to-date for many machinery sections: space, aviation, defense, automotive, and others. The aim is achieved via numerous methods of ER and carbon fiber reinforced plastic modifications. ER modifications is carried through injection of various chemical compounds. One of efficient modifications assumes introduction of plasticizers (tricresyl phosphate, oleic acid) or thermoplastics (polysulfone, polycarbonate, polystyrene, high impact polystyrene). The article contains experimental data of various types of modifiers influence on strength of ER and CFRP available in literature. The mechanism of modifying ER and CFRP with plasticizers and thermoplastics were analyzed. The introduction of plasticizers as ER modifiers leads to a twofold improvement in impact strength. The optimal input of plasticizers in ER is 15% and depends on the completeness of solubility in the binder, a further increase in the input of plasticizer leads to a decrease in the strength of the material. Modification of thermoplastics with CFRP can lead to an improvement in compression strength by 20% and impact strength by 2 times. With the introduction of thermoplastics over 20% in CFRP, strength indicators are reduced. The acquired data is necessary to elaborate domestic technology for production of high-impact CFRP.

This paper investigates a polymer composite and carbon fiber impregnated with epoxy resin for the fabrication of a lightweight and high-strength composite casing for rocket propulsion systems. It describes the winding technology which uses a removable mandrel and angular winding at ±55° and ±20° to expand the stress distribution, as well as alternating angles of ±45° and 80° to improve resistance to tensile and torsional loads. A fixture has been developed that ensures ease of disassembly and good strength of the final products. Hydrostatic tests showed the operational stability of the casings under internal pressure up to 10 MPa for a 1.5 mm-thick casing and 18 MPa for a 3 mm-thick casing, which confirms the effectiveness of the proposed technology. The research results demonstrate the high reliability and potential exploitation of composite materials.