Automotive air conditioning systems improve passenger comfort and safety while keeping pace with changing environmental and technological requirements. This review evaluates the historical development, technological progress, and future trends of automotive air conditioning systems, primarily focusing on passenger vehicles, where cabin comfort and individualized thermal control are essential. The analysis examines the transition from early, energy-intensive cooling systems typically operating at a coefficient of performance (COP) of around 1.5 to modern, environmentally friendly alternatives that achieve COP values of approximately 3.0 or higher, highlighting the impact of regulatory measures such as the Kigali Amendment. A particular focus is placed on comparing refrigerants, especially the transition from HFC-134a to HFO-1234yf, with a discussion of their ecological impact and compliance with regulations. Innovative technologies, including adsorption cooling, AI-enhanced climate control, and the integration of renewable energy, are being explored as potential solutions to current challenges. Initially, 121 articles were reviewed, with 84 chosen for detailed examination based on their relevance, methodological soundness, and contributions to the field. The results reveal the trade-offs among efficiency, cost, and sustainability, highlighting the need for ongoing innovation to balance energy usage and environmental stewardship. Future studies should focus on creating refrigerants with extremely low global warming potential, improving battery efficiency in electric vehicles, and utilizing AI for tailored climate control. By tackling these issues, the automotive sector can offer more sustainable and efficient air conditioning options that align with consumer expectations and environmental regulations.

Waste heat recovery from automotive exhaust gases represents an important strategy for improving vehicle energy efficiency. This study experimentally investigates the performance of a thermoelectric generator (TEG) system based on TEC1-12706 modules running under different cold-side cooling conditions and incorporating a Hot Rolled Steel (HRS) protective layer on the hot side. The HRS plate was used to ensure uniform heat distribution and protect the thermoelectric module against thermal shocks generated by a 250 °C heat source. Four cooling regimes were experimentally analyzed: natural convection and forced airflows equivalent to 40, 60, and 90 km/h. The results proved that increasing airflow intensity significantly improved the temperature difference across the module, from approximately 16 ± 2 °C under natural convection to nearly 40 ± 2 °C at the highest airflow velocity. Correspondingly, the steady-state voltage generated increased from approximately 0.25 ± 0.01 V to over 0.60 ± 0.01 V under an 82 Ω resistive load. The measured hot-side temperature remained below 75 °C in all experimental conditions, confirming the thermal protection capability of the HRS layer. The experimental data also revealed a near-linear relationship between voltage and temperature difference, consistent with the Seebeck effect. The proposed configuration shows the feasibility of combining thermal protection and forced convection cooling to improve the stability and electrical performance of thermoelectric waste heat recovery systems intended for low-power automotive auxiliary applications.

This paper investigates the potential of localized air-curtain microclimate control to reduce HVAC energy consumption in electric vehicles while maintaining occupant thermal comfort. The study compares conventional full-cabin cooling with driver-focused and passenger-focused air-curtain configurations under controlled ambient conditions of 32 °C. The experimental framework combines analytical airflow and heat-transfer modeling with comparative HVAC performance evaluation using power consumption, time to reach thermal comfort, and Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) analysis. The results show that the air-curtain configurations reduce HVAC power consumption from 3.2 kW for conventional cooling to 2.3 kW and 2.5 kW for the driver- and passenger-focused configurations, corresponding to energy savings of approximately 22–28%. In addition, localized airflow significantly accelerates thermal comfort attainment, reducing stabilization time from 8 min to 4–5 min while maintaining PMV values within acceptable comfort limits. The findings demonstrate that occupant-centered air-curtain microclimate strategies can improve HVAC energy efficiency, reduce auxiliary energy demand, and support more sustainable and range-efficient operation of next-generation electric vehicles.

Modern HVAC systems in road vehicles are vital for maintaining thermal comfort, but also represent a significant energy consumer, especially in electric vehicles. This study investigates airflow optimization methods to improve energy efficiency and passenger comfort by combining thermodynamic modeling, CFD simulation, and intelligent control. The paper proposes an integrated approach using adaptive control strategies and advanced cabin design, focusing on dynamic airflow regulation based on real-time sensor input. A simplified mathematical model and CFD analysis were developed to evaluate airflow velocity, temperature distribution, and energy use. The simulation compared standard and optimized configurations, demonstrating that better airflow control reduces energy consumption while maintaining or improving comfort. The results confirm that airflow optimization, through predictive control and smart sensor integration, is a feasible path toward more efficient and sustainable climate control systems in vehicles. The findings support future applications in automotive design, particularly for electric and low-emission vehicles.

Electromechanical braking (EMB) replaces hydraulic wheel-brake actuation with electric actuators that generate clamping force locally. This review critically synthesises EMB architectures, actuation, sensing, control, safety, and industrial development for road vehicles. The synthesis addresses fragmented evidence linking actuator design to vehicle integration and technological maturity. A structured critical-review method was applied to 100 sources: 59 scientific and technical publications, 26 patents or published patent applications, 6 standards and regulatory documents, and 9 industrial publications. Source categories were appraised separately to distinguish validated findings, disclosed concepts, and manufacturer-reported deployment. No actuator topology is superior under all engineering criteria. Ball-screw mechanisms have the broadest scientific and experimental coverage; roller-screw, wedge, and gear–spindle concepts offer specific advantages but less consistent validation. The principal challenges concern power and communication availability, force and contact-point estimation, thermal durability, diagnostics, cybersecurity, and coordination with regenerative braking and stability control. Electrohydraulic brake-by-wire has a longer documented production history, while semi-dry and fully dry architectures show heterogeneous readiness. The roadmap prioritises comparable testing, vehicle-level fault validation, lifecycle evidence, coordinated safety and cybersecurity assurance, and independently corroborated field data.