Colorectal cancer (CRC) constitutes a major global health concern, ranking as the third most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer-related mortality. The current review explores sex-based differences in CRC epidemiology, risk factors, tumor biology, and clinical outcomes. Males exhibit a higher incidence and mortality rate, with left-sided (distal) CRC predominating, while females are more frequently diagnosed with right-sided (proximal) tumors, which tend to be more aggressive and less responsive to conventional chemotherapy. Genetic disparities, including microsatellite instability and X-chromosome tumor suppressor genes, contribute to sex-specific differences in tumor progression and treatment response. Immune variations also influence disease outcomes, with females exhibiting stronger immune surveillance but higher exhaustion markers. Lifestyle factors such as body mass index (BMI), smoking, and hormonal influences further modulate CRC risk. While males are more vulnerable to obesity-related CRC, central obesity (waist-to-hip ratio) emerges as a stronger predictor in females. Additionally, smoking increases CRC risk differentially by tumor location. These findings underscore the importance of sex-specific approaches in CRC prevention, screening, and treatment, advocating for personalized medicine strategies tailored to gender-based biological and clinical distinctions.

Background/Objectives: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the most commonly reported malignancies globally, taking the third place in incidence among males as well as the second among females, with over 1.9 million new cases and 935,000 deaths estimated worldwide in 2020. One of the most common and clinically significant comorbidities in patients undergoing CRC surgery is preoperative anemia, with reported prevalence ranging from 23% to over 60% depending on the population and diagnostic criteria used. The objective of the current study is to systematically evaluate the current body of evidence on preoperative anemia management in adults undergoing surgery for non-metastatic CRC. This review aims to assess the clinical impact of different iron supplementation strategies, particularly IV versus oral iron in pre-operative hematologic optimization, transfusion requirements, postoperative complications, and recovery outcomes. Methods: The current systematic review was conducted based on the PRISMA for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis checklist. The study has been registered to PROSPERO with the ID CRD420251113455. Results: Across all studies, IV iron and erythropoiesis-stimulating agents emerged as safe and more efficient alternatives to iron per os, especially when initiated at least two weeks before surgery. Thus, highlighting the clinical value of proactive anemia management as a cornerstone of surgical prehabilitation, potentially reducing transfusion burden and improving recovery outcomes for CRC patients. Conclusions: It is observed that IV iron therapy offers a more effective strategy than per os supplementation for correcting preoperative anemia in non-metastatic colorectal cancer patients. Their hematologic benefits enhance surgical readiness and reduce postoperative intervention needs. Thus, supporting the integration of IV iron into preoperative optimization protocols.

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is one of the most aggressive and fatal malignancies worldwide, posing a significant global health challenge due to its high mortality rates, late-stage diagnosis, and limited therapeutic efficacy

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains one of the most frequently diagnosed malignancies worldwide and a leading indication for major abdominal surgery, with a rising incidence among younger adults. Because CRC resection is a physiologically demanding procedure performed in a frequently comorbid, often anemic and malnourished population, the preoperative period represents a decisive window in which laboratory and diagnostic testing shapes staging, risk stratification, and optimization. This narrative review is deliberately confined to the preoperative window—from histological diagnosis to the day of elective, curative-intent colon or rectal resection—and synthesizes evidence retrieved from PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and ScienceDirect together with current society guidelines. It is organized around four themes: (i) the core laboratory workup, including the complete blood count and preoperative anemia, iron studies, metabolic and hepatic panels, coagulation testing, and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA); (ii) the diagnostic and staging workup, encompassing complete colonic evaluation, contrast-enhanced computed tomography, pelvic magnetic resonance imaging for rectal cancer, and the selective role of positron emission tomography; (iii) risk stratification and preoperative optimization, spanning patient blood management, nutritional assessment and albumin, computed-tomography-defined low skeletal muscle mass, frailty, functional capacity, prehabilitation, and glycemic control; and (iv) molecular characterization, distinguishing mismatch-repair/microsatellite-instability (MMR/MSI) testing—an established, widely recommended component of CRC evaluation—from genuinely emerging biomarkers such as circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) and systemic inflammatory and prognostic nutritional indices. Differences between colon and rectal cancer, elective and emergency presentation, and upfront versus post-neoadjuvant surgery are signposted throughout. We further integrate these elements within contemporary guideline and Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) frameworks, including the 2025 ERAS Society recommendations for elective colorectal surgery, and distill them into a practical, evidence-based preoperative checklist specifying thresholds, timing, interventions, and strength of supporting evidence. We emphasize that the prognostic power of postoperative ctDNA does not yet translate into ctDNA-guided treatment decisions outside clinical trials. The central message is that preoperative testing in CRC should be purposeful and stage- and risk-adapted rather than reflexive: each investigation should refine staging, modify perioperative management, or enable measurable optimization. Each risk domain is paired with the intervention it should trigger, the criteria identifying candidates for extended thromboprophylaxis are specified, and the systemic inflammatory indices are framed as a trigger for optimization rather than as prognostic commentary.