Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder with chronic inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity and is linked with significant functional impairment. Despite being highly prevalent, diagnosis of ADHD continues to rely on subjective assessment reports of behavior and is often delayed or inaccurate. This review summarizes current advances in biomarkers and neuropsychological tests for the improvement of ADHD diagnosis and treatment. Key biomarkers are neuroimaging methods (e.g., structural and functional MRI), electrophysiological measures (e.g., EEG, ERP), and biochemical measures (e.g., cortisol, vitamin D). Additionally, novel experimental measures, e.g., eye-tracking, pupillometry, and microbiome analysis, hold the promise to be objective and dynamic measures of ADHD symptoms. The review also comments on the impact of the burden of ADHD on quality of life, e.g., emotional well-being, academic achievement, and social functioning. Additionally, differences between individuals, such as age, sex, comorbidities, and the impact of social and family support, are also addressed in relation to ADHD outcomes. In summary, we highlight the potential of these emerging biomarkers and tools to revolutionize ADHD diagnosis and guide personalized treatment strategies. These insights have significant implications for improving patient outcomes.

Homocysteine (Hcy) is becoming a well-established risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD), mainly involving endothelial dysfunction and atherogenesis. Endothelial dysfunction is reflected primarily in the complex regulation of the main physiological and pathophysiological processes. There is increasing evidence regarding abnormally high concentrations of plasma total homocysteine, or plasma hyperhomocysteinemia, contributing to endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, and CVD. This clinical and experimental study examined the connection between Hcy and cardiovascular disease risk. Homocysteine is a marker of total vascular damage that must be monitored and controlled as early as possible. Dietary and lifestyle changes are recommended for most patients with hyperhomocysteinemia (Hhcy). The purpose of this paper is to review the data from the specialized literature that demonstrate that there is a direct link between endothelial injury and increased homocysteine levels, identifying existing evidence, describing new mechanisms, and exploring potential new therapeutic options. These aspects continue to be debated, and additional efforts are required to refine therapeutic strategies and to investigate the potential implications of Hcy in health and disease.

Cervical cancer is a major global health concern with serious implications for women’s health. It is most often caused by persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) types. However, about 5–11% of cervical carcinoma cases are HPV-independent, entities with their own unique set of histopathological, molecular, and clinical features. The histopathological forms of HPV-independent cervical cancer include gastric-type adenocarcinoma, clear-cell, mesonephric, and endometrioid carcinoma. Unlike HPV-associated cervical cancers, which require E6 and E7 oncogenes for their expression, HPV-independent tumors exhibit specific mutations such as TP53, PIK3CA, KRAS, STK11, and PTEN. These mutations lead to alternative oncogenic pathways. Diagnosis of HPV-independent cervical adenocarcinoma is often delayed because of possible misclassification as endometrial adenocarcinomas, which frequently results from inadequate HPV testing. This often leads to advanced presentation stages, higher rates of lymphovascular invasion, and, in many cases, a reduced response to chemotherapy and immunotherapy—though outcomes can vary across histotypes and selected patient subgroups—due to the immune-cold tumor microenvironment. Although these morphologic and molecular characteristics describe tumors that are very difficult to manage, PI3K/mTOR and KRAS inhibitors may offer potential therapeutic options for selected patients. This review focuses on the pathogenic and molecular mechanisms, histopathological features, prognosis, and therapeutic difficulties of HPV-independent cervical cancers. Moreover, it provides a comprehension of contemporary issues in diagnostic methods and some new therapeutic approaches, suggesting the need for precision medicine in this aggressive type of cervical cancer. Further studies are necessary to enhance early detection, improve treatment results, and increase survival rates for patients with HPV-independent cervical cancer.

Background: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a common neuro-developmental disorder that is linked to attention, hyperactivity, and impulse control. There is emerging evidence that markers like Vitamin D, Chromogranin A (CgA), Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α), and cortisol can be used to explain its biological mechanisms. Objective: To quantify serum levels of Vitamin D, CgA, TNF-α, and cortisol in ADHD patients and control subjects, and establish their diagnostic value. Methods: According to PRISMA guidelines, we searched Google Scholar and PubMed systematically for observational studies that assess the serum levels of the selected biomarkers in ADHD and control groups. The studies that passed the inclusion criteria were screened, extracted, and analyzed using a random-effects model. The effect sizes were presented as Hedges' g. Heterogeneity was assessed using I² statistics, and potential publication bias was assessed using funnel plots and Egger's test. Meta-regression was conducted to explore moderators like age, gender, and comorbidities. Results: 28 studies were included. Vitamin D was significantly lower in ADHD patients compared to controls (SMD = -1.19, 95% CI: -2.04 to -0.33, p = 0.0068), but heterogeneity was high (I² = 96.5%). TNF-α was significantly lower (SMD = -0.39, 95% CI: -0.65 to -0.13, p = 0.0033) with low heterogeneity (I² = 22.0%). Cortisol was significantly lower (SMD = -0.78, 95% CI: -1.48 to -0.08, p = 0.0280), with high heterogeneity (I² = 94.3%). Chromogranin A results were inconclusive due to limited data. Meta-regression revealed that age, male sex, and comorbidities significantly moderated Vitamin D effect sizes, but other predictors were not significant. Conclusion: Vitamin D, TNF-α, and cortisol are all greatly diminished in ADHD and are potential addition-al diagnostic markers. CgA is worthy of further study.