Chinese civilisation has long been assumed to have developed in the Central Plains in the mid to late second millennium BC. Recent archaeological discoveries at the Bronze Age site of Shimao, however, fundamentally challenge traditional understanding of ‘peripheries’ and ‘centres’, and the emergence of Chinese civilisation. This research reveals that by 2000 BC, the loess highland was home to a complex society representing the political and economic heartland of China. Significantly, it was found that Later Bronze Age core symbols associated with Central Plains civilisations were, in fact, created much earlier at Shimao. This study provides important new perspectives on narratives of state formation and the emergence of civilisation worldwide.

This study systematically analyzes the composition and microstructure of Neolithic pottery unearthed from the Dazhuzhuang, Likou, and Biting Sites in the Yongcheng District using techniques such as X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), infrared spectroscopy (IR), and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). The results show that although the raw materials for pottery at the three sites were likely sourced from nearby ancient soil layers, significant differences in chemical composition and manufacturing techniques are evident. Pottery from the Dazhuzhuang Site is mainly composed of argillaceous gray pottery, with relatively loose raw material selection and a wide fluctuation in SiO₂ content (64.98–71.07%), reflecting diversity in raw material sources. At the Likou Site, argillaceous black pottery predominates, characterized by higher Al₂O₃ content (17.78%) and significant fluctuations in CaO content (1.46–2.22%), suggesting the addition of calcareous fluxes and the adoption of standardized manufacturing techniques. Pottery from the Biting Site mainly consists of argillaceous gray pottery, showing higher Al₂O₃ content (17.36%), stable SiO₂ content (65.19–69.01%), and the lowest CaO content (0.84–1.81%). The microstructural analysis further reveals that the black pottery (from the Likou Site) displays dense vitrified regions and localized iron enrichment. In contrast, the gray pottery (from the Dazhuzhuang and Biting Sites) shows clay platelet structures and vessel-type-specific differences in porosity. This research provides important scientific evidence for understanding raw material selection, manufacturing techniques, and regional cultural interactions in the Yongcheng area during the Longshan Culture period.