We examined the cross-national adoption of six major private food safety standards, focusing on the role of certifiers and international trade. Results show that the number of certification bodies existing in the domestic country, food exports, and the proportion of food exports to North America had positive effects on a country's adoption of food safety standards. Distance leads to product differentiation for the standards and therefore disadvantages developing countries in Africa and Asia for adopting the standards, which are all based in the United States or Europe. Providing these countries with better access to certifiers can alleviate this geographic disadvantage.

Although price reduction is an interesting topic in marketing literature and has studied in numerous papers, less attention is paid to its effect on consumer behavior. This paper analyzes the effect of the price promotion on consumer’s behavior in terms of the percentage of buying and the brand loyalty in the U.S. differentiated yogurt market. This paper tries to answer the following questions. Is the choice of high preferred brands sensitive to the price promotion of less preferred brands? Are there loyal consumers in the yogurt market? How sensitive is the consumer loyalty of high preferred brands to the price promotion of less preferred brands? Results show that a unit increase in the frequency of price reduction of less popular brands will decrease the consumer’s choice of high popular brands significantly. Switching across brands is very common and there are less loyal consumers in the yogurt market where main brands have collectively only 12% loyal consumers. Loyalty of high popular brands is also sensitive to the price promotion of less popular brands as a unit increase in the frequency of price reduction for less preferred brands will decreases the share of households who are loyal to high popular brands of General Mills and Danone.

Rising population, combined with declining home food production, in Arab nations has resulted in increased food imports that intensifies their dependence on international markets for vital food supplies. These nations face challenges in achieving food security because crude oil price volatility creates difficulties in managing the expenses of imported food products. This research calculates the income and price elasticities of imported food demand to understand consumer behavior changes in response to income and price variations, which helps to explain their impact on regional food security. To our knowledge, this research presents the first analysis of imported food consumption patterns across Arab countries according to their income brackets. This study employs the static Almost Ideal Demand System model to examine food import data spanning from 1961 to 2020. The majority of imported food categories demonstrate inelastic price and income demand, which means that their essential food consumption remains stable despite cost fluctuations. The need for imports makes Arab nations vulnerable to external price changes, which endangers their food security. This research demonstrates why governments must implement policies through subsidies and taxation to reduce price volatility risks while ensuring food stability, which will lead to sustained food security for these nations.