In recent years, CGIAR researchers have investigated the effectiveness of using agrobiodiversity, and more particularly crop and crop varietal diversity, as an adaptive practice to mitigate climate-change impacts on agriculture and to contribute to rural household and community resilience. The hypothesis informing this research is that the sustained practice of crop diversification leads to ecological redundancy, which allows farmer households and their communities to produce multiple positive livelihood benefits. The validity of this hypothesis is investigated by means of an extensive literature review (covering 2015–2020). Findings reveal ample evidence of positive outcomes, including increased yields and household incomes, improved nutrition and food security, new marketing opportunities, reduced poverty, and strengthened adaptive and innovative capacity. However, the evidence is far less convincing about the last part of the hypothetical impact pathway, i.e. the link between positive livelihood benefits and (increased) resilience. This shortcoming is addressed through the elaboration of a more clearly articulated theory of change for crop diversification and a refined methodology to support farmers in making appropriate diversification decisions. At the same time, the critical review opens a window on an important, novel perspective, which is to look at the role that crop diversification could play in a wider societal transition toward a more sustainable future.

Barcoding scientists aspire to adhere to the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity by promoting conservation, sustainability, and the equitable sharing of benefits arising from use of genetic resources. (Image: Juan Manuel Escalante, wwww.realitat.com)

In the midst of China's agricultural reform, new forms of farmer organization have emerged, some initiated by farmers themselves, but most through government intervention. Based on national survey data complemented by two in-depth case studies of rural cooperatives, an analysis is made of the roles and significance of these new farmer organizations. Chinese rural cooperatives predominantly facilitate economic cooperation and market integration. This is supported by agricultural policies and the Cooperative Law of 2007 oriented towards the commoditization of smallholder farming. There are some cooperatives not primarily motivated by commodity imperatives, but by the fulfilment of agro-ecological and socio-cultural functions. To date, the roles and significance of this non-mainstream type of rural cooperative has not received much attention. If China is to become a ‘green society’ as proclaimed by the government, more attention and support to this type of cooperatives seems warranted.

Although community level seed-saving initiatives have been around for about 30 years, until recently they have received little attention in the scientific literature on climate change adaptation and plant genetic resources. Based on research experiences from various countries, this article argues that community seed banks can enhance the resilience of farmers, in particular of communities and households most affected by climate change. Community seed banks can secure improved access to, and availability of, diverse, locally adapted crops and varieties, and enhance related indigenous knowledge and skills in plant management, including seed selection, treatment, storage, multiplication, and distribution.

Community seed banks (CSBs) are initiatives to support the conservation and use of diverse crops though locally rooted collective action. The impact of CSBs is assumed to be complex, but has not been investigated in detail. Our study addresses this gap by analysing the impact of CSBs using social-ecological resilience as theoretical framework. We focus on the western highlands of Guatemala where CSBs have been implemented since 2009. We used qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis, including focus groups, participatory workshops, and structured and semi-structured interviews conducted in the local communities with CSB members and non-members. Our results indicate that CSBs contributed to increased seed exchanges, improved access to novel crop diversity, more saving of traditional varieties, and greater information and knowledge access, use and exchange. These effects strengthened the social-ecological resilience of the local communities. The scope of action of the CSBs, however, was constrained by wider socio-economic trends, including social divisions, out-migration of youth, and a change in livelihood strategies. We conclude that for CSBs to effectively strengthen social-ecological resilience in the future, they should be continuously adapted to the local context. Conceptually, our findings call for the further evolution of the CSB concept.

Although community-level seed-saving initiatives have existed in many countries around the world for about 30 years, they have rarely been the subject of systematic scientific enquiry. Based on a combination of a literature review and field research, we present a novel comprehensive conceptual framework that focuses on the multiple functions and services provided by community-based seed-saving efforts, in particular community seed banks. This framework is output oriented and complements an input oriented typology of community seed banks presented in 1997. The framework identifies three core functions: conserving genetic resources; enhancing access to and availability of diverse local crops; and ensuring seed and food sovereignty. The framework can be used for analysis of existing seed-saving initiatives and serve as a guide for the establishment of new community seed banks. In addition, it can inform the development or revision of national policies or strategies to support community seed banks. The framework’s utility is illustrated by three case studies of community seed banks in Bangladesh, Guatemala and Nepal.