Species diversity and soil quality are deteriorating due to continuous disturbances in ecosystems caused by human interference. However, agroforestry is considered a good approach to minimizing environmental problems. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the impacts of participatory agroforestry on restoring soil fertility, farm productivity and biodiversity in the degraded Madhupur Sal forest of Bangladesh. The study purposefully selected 40 common agroforestry programs in Madhupur Sal forest for the collection of soil and plant data from 2020 to 2023. Agroforestry programs have improved soil organic matter, soil carbon, pH, and available N, P and K content to a substantial degree and protected soil degradation, enhancing yield. The soil improvement index represents the potentiality of agroforestry in restoring soil nutrients and carbon in the form of organic matter, which is an important indicator for carbon sequestration and mitigating the impacts of climate change. The resultant cost–benefit and land equivalent ratios were steadily higher, which corroborates the greater productivity and profitability of agroforestry compared to monoculture systems. In contrast, agroforestry restored 31 plant species, opening up opportunities for restoring plant species in the threatened forest ecosystem. Therefore, this study recommended selecting appropriate site-specific species for managing agroforestry and restoring ecosystems.

This paper explores the role of agroforestry in sequestering atmospheric carbon in the tropics and subtropics, specifically in the Madhupur Sal forest of Bangladesh. Agroforestry, combining trees with crops on agricultural lands, is recognized for its potential to act as a carbon sink and enhance productivity. The study assesses various agroforestry practices, including acacia–pineapple–turmeric–papaya, acacia–pineapple–ginger–banana, and sal–pineapple–aroid combinations. This study innovatively assessed both the carbon sequestration and economic viability of agroforestry in the Madhupur Sal forest, presenting a sustainable land-use model that balances environmental benefits and farm profitability. The research reveals improved farm productivity in these agroforestry systems, with different tree species sequestering varying amounts of carbon. Acacia species, ranging from 12 to 25 ft in height, sequestered an average of 23.35 lbs/year, while sal species (Shorea robusta), with trees 45 to 61 ft tall, sequestered 49.80 lbs/year on average. Factors such as tree height, diameter at breast height (DBH), number of leaves, and branches influence carbon sequestration. The paper suggests that the carbon sequestration (CS) potential of agroforestry results in greenhouse gas emission reduction in Bangladesh. By emphasizing the profitability of these practices alongside carbon sequestration, the study encourages the adoption of agroforestry as a sustainable and economically viable strategy.

Biochar-based agroforestry systems (AFS) have emerged as a promising strategy to restore soil fertility, enhance crop productivity, and contribute to climate change mitigation. This review synthesizes global evidence on the integration of biochar into AFS, highlighting both ecological and socioeconomic outcomes. Across diverse contexts, biochar application significantly improved soil health by increasing soil organic matter and soil organic carbon; for example, in Bangladesh, litchi- and mahogany-based AFS increased SOC from 0.28% to 1.87% and SOM from 0.49% to 3.23% over 30 years. In Nepal, combining 5 Mg ha^− 1 biochar with 20 Mg ha^− 1 farmyard manure improved soil pH and plant vegetative growth in coffee AFS, while in banana-based systems, urine-biochar plus compost raised yields by 41–102% and reduced poverty levels by 30%. Dryland studies in Ethiopia reported a 44% increase in new culms of Yushinia alpina and a 266% biomass increase under biochar plus deficit irrigation. Similarly, Colombian coffee plantations using 8–16 Mg ha^− 1 coffee-pulp biochar recorded a 20% yield increase and 34% reduction in chemical fertilizer demand, while Brazilian silvopastoral systems showed carbon stock gains of 2.5–4.2 Mg C ha⁻¹ and forage productivity improvements of 20%. This review highlights that biochar–AFS synergies improve soil health, crop productivity, and rural livelihoods while strengthening ecosystem resilience. Scaling up these practices can enhance carbon sequestration, reduce reliance on chemical fertilizers, restore degraded lands, and support sustainable land management under climate change.

The rich plant biodiversity found in tropical regions faces significant threats due to extensive human activities. Factors such as deforestation, habitat deterioration, human settlement, excessive resource exploitation, the introduction of invasive species, pollution, and the interconnected effects of global climate change collectively contribute to a substantial negative impact on biodiversity in these areas. The study aimed to assess plant diversity in Madhupur Sal Forest, Bangladesh, comparing agroforestry, social forestry, and natural Sal Forest sites. Using 90 random 10 × 10 m² plots, 47 species were recorded, including 31 trees, 5 shrubs, 6 herbs, and 5 climbers. Anacardiaceae, Arecaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Fabaceae were prominent families, each with a species richness of 3. Agroforestry exhibited the highest species richness (14), Shannon-Wiener index (1.37), and Simpson's index (2.41) among plantation sites, surpassing social forestry. Social forestry, however, showed higher tree stand density (1673 trees/ha), tree basal area (28.67 m²/ha), and species evenness (0.67) than agroforestry. The natural Sal Forest site displayed the highest species richness (33), tree basal area (41.21 m²/ha), Shannon-Wiener index (2.15), and species evenness (0.78). Overlapping species occurred between agroforestry and social forestry (5 species), and agroforestry and natural Sal Forest (1 species), resulting in a higher similarity index (19%) for the former. No species overlapped between social forestry and natural Sal Forest. The study concluded that natural Sal Forest exhibited the highest diversity (2.15), while agroforestry proved beneficial for biodiversity compared to bare land.

Agroforestry holds significant promise for offering substantial benefits to the Garo ethnic community, who are recognized as one of the primary indigenous groups in the Madhupur region with distinct cultural identities. Given the integral role of community involvement in agroforestry management, particularly in relation to gender dynamics, this study sought to analyze the gender role of Garo men and women in adopting and managing agroforestry practices. Data were gathered from 70 Garo tribal farmers (37 male and 33 female) across six villages practicing various agroforestry techniques in the Madhupur Sal forest area. Using a mixed-methods approach that incorporated semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and direct observations, the study identified prevalent agroforestry practices featuring various tree-crop combinations. These included Akashmoni (Acacia auriculiformis) paired with Pineapple (Ananas comosus) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale), as well as other combinations such as Akashmoni-Pineapple-Turmeric, Akashmoni-Pineapple-Papaya, and Akashmoni-Pineapple-Aroid. Both men and women exhibited a moderate to high level of involvement in agroforestry programs, with decision-making processes shared between genders. However, challenges were encountered, particularly by women from ethnic minority backgrounds, including limited technical knowledge, financial resources, and labor availability. Despite these obstacles, both Garo men and women expressed a keen interest in agroforestry practices as a means to enhance their income and livelihoods, forming gender-based partnerships to address associated challenges in a changing socioeconomic landscape.

Agroforestry enhances livelihoods, conserves biodiversity, and mitigates climate change but faces adoption challenges. This study uniquely addresses a gap in existing research by specifically analyzing the socioeconomic determinants of agroforestry adoption among pineapple farmers in Bangladesh's Moulvibazar and Tangail districts—a context where such crop‐focused adoption studies are scarce. A survey of 300 respondents was conducted, and data were collected through structured questionnaires and interviews, capturing demographic, economic, and institutional variables. Principal component analysis (PCA), decision tree analysis, and structural equation modeling (SEM) were employed due to their ability to reduce data dimensionality, identify interaction patterns, and test complex relationships among latent variables, respectively—analytical strengths that conventional regression lacks in capturing multidimensional adoption drivers. The results revealed significant regional differences: Tangail exhibited higher land ownership (9.36 ha on average), annual income (6001.89 USD), and institutional support, while Moulvibazar showed greater awareness (97.22%) and training participation (89.18%). Land size, education, and extension services were identified as significant factors influencing adoption rates, with smallholders in Tangail achieving 90% adoption when supported by training and institutional services. The PCA identified total land and training as primary contributors, while SEM highlighted education (−0.46), total land (0.55), and training (0.25) as key determinants. Despite higher incomes, Tangail's greater income inequality (Gini 0.5974 vs. 0.2926) highlights the need for inclusive benefit‐sharing mechanisms. Barriers such as lack of capital, limited market access, and inadequate institutional support were prevalent in both regions. Policy recommendations should prioritize financial incentives, accessible credit schemes, strengthened market linkages, and farmer‐centered training to enhance equitable and sustainable agroforestry adoption.