This research investigates the determinants of government healthcare expenditure in high-income and upper-middle-income countries by exploring economic, demographic, and political influences. By analyzing data from 1990 to 2019 from 28 high-income and 42 upper-middle-income nations, this study employs Bayesian model averaging, the generalized method of moments, and regression discontinuity design. The results reveal that government healthcare spending positively correlates with the previous year's expenditure in both income groups. Additionally, the impact of education on spending differs, while it is positively significant in high-income countries, it is not significant in upper-middle-income countries. The proportion of elderly individuals positively influences healthcare spending in high-income countries but inconsistently influences healthcare spending in upper-middle-income countries. Urbanization significantly impacts spending in upper-middle-income nations. The positive association between industrial employment and spending suggests greater healthcare needs in such areas. Efforts to curb corruption positively affect spending differently for each income group. Out-of-pocket expenses negatively impact spending in both groups, though positively in high-income countries alone. The influence of the young population varies, being negative in high-income countries but positive in upper-middle-income countries. Logistic and probit regression models identify key determinants, including gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, elderly population proportion, out-of-pocket expenses, and corruption control measures in high-income countries. Policymakers can use these findings to tailor strategies, optimize healthcare spending, and ensure equitable access across income levels.

Ongoing economic losses in the poultry industry, due to endemic diseases such as highly pathogenic avian influenza and Newcastle disease, ensure that biosecurity adoption on small-scale broiler farms remains a priority for Indonesia. However, given their economic constraints and the nature of the market for their products, these smallholders need to be convinced that there is an economic benefit to them from investing in biosecurity. As the majority of smallholders manage their birds under a contract, these contract companies not only need to be involved in the discussion but, if they are not prepared to assist directly in assisting with improved biosecurity, need to ensure that the conditions of the contract do encourage this smallholder investment. Every contract includes price and performance bonuses and, although the nature of these vary between contract companies, they are designed to encourage productivity improvement. This study evaluates existing contract bonus systems in six major contract companies in Indonesia and their capacity to encourage investment in biosecurity. Results indicated that the price bonus plays a significant role in providing additional smallholder income. If higher than expected sale prices are obtained, contracts with companies 3, 5 and 6 ensure that a greater proportion of this price is passed on to smallholders. Contracts 2, 4, and 6 provide farmers with higher performance bonuses, indicating that these companies encourage farmers to improve production efficiency. Overall estimates after the initial year of biosecurity investment show improvements in returns, where farmers can receive up to USD 2.73 for every dollar invested in biosecurity.