In the scientific literature, it is highlighted that industrialized construction has significant comparative advantages over traditional construction, primarily in four indicators: (i) cost reduction, (ii) time reduction, (iii) increased energy performance, and (iv) reduced environmental impacts. However, there is no certainty about the range of variation of these indicators for these comparative advantages, creating uncertainty about the real impact of industrialized construction. In this work, through a systematic literature review based on PRISMA, 90 articles that met the selection criteria related to the four mentioned indicators were selected and analyzed. The results show that industrialized construction has comparative advantages over traditional construction but with a wide spectrum of variation in each of the indicators. In the cost indicator, reductions between 7% and 50% and increases between 26% and 72% are observed; in time, reductions between 9% and 50% and increases up to 32% are recorded, and reductions in energy demand between 20% and 90% are also reported. For the environmental indicators, data were only provided for projects in the design stage or for construction solutions on a scale, demonstrating the need to obtain indicators in the operational stage. It is concluded that although industrialized construction offers significant advantages, it is essential that new construction solutions consider contextual variations, initial investment, logistical challenges, and specialized labor to maximize their benefits.

This study addresses the challenges associated with conventional plywood shear testing by introducing a novel miniaturized shear test method. This approach utilizes a controlled router toolpath for precise sample fabrication, enabling efficient material use and data acquisition. Miniaturized samples, designed with double shear zones, were tested for τ_xy, τ_xz, and τ_yz configurations using a universal testing machine. Results revealed a mean ultimate shear strength ranging from 5.6 MPa to 7.3 MPa and a mean shear modulus ranging from 0.039 GPa to 0.095 GPa, confirming the orthotropic nature of plywood. The resulting shear behavior was determined with stress–strain curves correlated with failure patterns. The miniaturized tests effectively captured the material’s heterogeneous behavior, particularly at smaller scales, and demonstrated consistent load-bearing capacity even after substantial stress reduction, suggesting suitability for bracing applications. This method allows for increased sample sizes, facilitating robust data collection for developing and validating finite element models. Future work will focus on evaluating the scalability of the observed orthotropic behavior and data scatter at larger scales and assessing the potential for this method to replace conventional full-scale plywood shear testing.

The construction sector’s environmental footprint is driving the adoption of sustainable modular timber systems. The WikiHouse Skylark is a promising open-source model whose structural reliability depends on the performance of its critical plywood TIE joints. This study presents an experimental investigation of full-scale TIE joints fabricated from 18 mm Pinus radiata plywood in three variants: Standard (STD), Weather-Resistant (HR), and Fire-Resistant (FR). Monotonic tensile and shear tests were conducted to evaluate load–displacement behavior and failure modes. While the mean ultimate strengths varied between panel types, with HR highest in tension (7.7 kN) and FR highest in shear (8.2 kN), the most critical finding was the effect of the treatments on failure mode. The FR treatment induced a brittle fracture with significantly reduced ductility, in contrast to the more ductile tearing observed in STD and HR panels. This highlights a clear strength–ductility trade-off introduced by the fire-retardant treatment, a key consideration for structural design in modular timber construction. This dataset provides an essential empirical foundation for the numerical modeling and design guidelines of WikiHouse TIE joints, advancing the development of resilient and sustainable prefabricated housing.

This study introduces and validates a miniaturized testing methodology for the complete orthotropic characterization of structural plywood, including out-of-plane directions that are typically difficult to access. Novel small-scale geometries were developed for tension and shear configurations, with compliance corrections applied to ensure accurate stress–strain responses. The method proved reliable and sensitive to mechanical differences arising from veneer architecture, adhesive type, and interfacial bonding. Two sets of 18 mm structural plywood panels—manufactured with distinct adhesive systems, one bio-based (F1) and one phenol-formaldehyde (F2)—were systematically tested under tensile, compressive, and shear loading in ten orthogonal configurations (T_x, T_y, T_z, C_x, C_y, C_z, τ_xy, τ_yx, τ_xz, τ_yz), following standards NCh 3617, EN 789, and ASTM B831. Tensile moduli were approximately twice the corresponding compressive values, while out-of-plane moduli reached only 6–11% of in-plane values. F1 exhibited higher stiffness in both tension and compression, particularly in transverse directions, due to thicker perpendicular veneers enhancing bending restraint and shear coupling. In contrast, F2 achieved greater peak shear strength owing to its more uniform veneer structure, which improved stress distribution and delayed interlaminar failure. Observed asymmetry between tension and compression reflected microstructural mechanisms such as fiber alignment and cell-wall buckling. The miniature-specimen data provide reliable input for constitutive calibration and finite-element modeling, while revealing clear links between veneer-thickness distribution, shear-transfer efficiency, and macroscopic performance. The proposed framework enables efficient, reproducible orthotropic characterization for optimized, lightweight, and carbon-efficient timber systems.

Integral CNC-machined timber connections provide an efficient fastening-free solution for digitally fabricated modular construction systems. Their response under repeated loading is governed by the interaction between joint geometry, plywood architecture, contact, and progressive material damage. This study experimentally investigates the quasi-static cyclic response of full-scale TIE joints used in the WikiHouse Skylark system and manufactured from 18 mm Pinus radiata D. Don plywood. Three plywood configurations were evaluated: standard structural plywood (STD), weather-resistant plywood (HR), and fire-resistant plywood (FR), with the central TIE element oriented either parallel (//) or perpendicular (⊥) to the applied load. A displacement-controlled cyclic protocol adapted from ISO 16670 was applied. The exploratory cyclic program used one full-scale specimen per tested configuration ($n=1$), comprising six tensile configurations and three shear configurations. Tensile joints were subjected to one-sided loading–unloading cycles, whereas shear joints were subjected to reversed cyclic displacement. Under cyclic tension, maximum forces ranged from 6.082 to 9.794 kN at displacements between 6.6 and 10.3 mm, with the highest measured force obtained for the HR ⊥ configuration. Reversed cyclic shear tests produced maximum forces between 8.212 and 8.976 kN at displacements between 4.7 and 7.0 mm. Across all tested configurations, the apparent initial stiffness ($K_e$) ranged from 1.202 to 1.641 kN/mm, while the cumulative dissipated energy ($E_d$) ranged from 105.02 to 425.81 J. Damage consistently localized within or adjacent to the reduced central TIE region and involved combinations of tensile cracking, shear fracture, local crushing, fiber separation, and fiber rearrangement. The results show that the integral TIE geometry maintains a well-defined load-transfer and failure region under progressively increasing cyclic displacement. The experimental evidence provides a component-level basis for subsequent replicated testing and the development of nonlinear models of digitally fabricated plywood connections.

Nature employs complex interlocking geometries, such as vertebrate cranial sutures, to combine load transfer with localized compliance and geometric interlocking. These biological interfaces incorporate alternating wide regions and narrow necks that can accommodate localized deformation while maintaining mechanical interlocking. Inspired by these structural characteristics, digitally fabricated timber systems—such as Skylark–WikiHouse assemblies—can employ analogous bow-tie joint geometries to introduce controlled compliance into the connection. While conventionally manufactured from plywood, the translation of this bio-inspired geometry using hybrid thermoplastic–timber materials remains insufficiently explored. To address this gap, hybrid bow-tie joints comprising 18 mm radiata pine plywood panels and compression-molded polypropylene (PP) or high-density polyethylene (HDPE) connectors were evaluated. Ten joints underwent displacement-controlled monotonic tension at 2 mm/min. The results indicate that PP and HDPE joints achieve nearly identical mean maximum loads of 6.61 and 6.65 kN, respectively. However, substituting PP with HDPE significantly alters the global load–displacement response, yielding 33% lower global stiffness, 63% greater displacement at maximum load, and 70% greater external mechanical work. Post-test examinations revealed that final visible cracking was localized to the surrounding plywood, with no complete rupture of the thermoplastic connectors. This final damage localization is consistent with the intended suture-inspired design concept; however, the present post-test observations do not establish the temporal sequence of crack initiation and propagation or directly demonstrate crack arrest. These findings identify connector material as a practical bio-inspired design variable for tuning the global stiffness–deformation response of digitally fabricated timber joints while maintaining comparable maximum tensile load capacity.