Snakebite is a neglected tropical disease that causes extensive mortality and morbidity in rural communities. Antivenim sera are the currently approved therapy for snake bites; however, they have some therapeutic limitations that have been extensively documented. Recently, small molecule toxin inhibitors have received significant attention as potential alternatives or co-adjuvant to immunoglobulin-based snakebite therapies. Thus, in this study, we evaluated the inhibitory effects of the phospholipase A₂ inhibitor varespladib and the metalloproteinase inhibitor CP471474 and their synergistic effects on the lethal, edema-forming, hemorrhagic, and myotoxic activities of Bothrops asper and Crotalus durissus cumanensis venoms from Colombia. Except for the preincubation assay of the lethal activity with B. asper venom, the mixture showed the best inhibitory activity. Nevertheless, the mix did not display statistically significant differences to varespladib and CP471474 used separately in all assays. In preincubation assays, varespladib showed the best inhibitory activity against the lethal effect induced by B. asper venom. However, in independent injection assays, the mix of the compounds partially inhibited the lethal activity of both venoms (50%). In addition, in the assays to test the inhibition of edema-forming activity, the mixture exhibited the best inhibitory activity, followed by Varespladib, but without statistically significant differences (p > 0.05). The combination also decreased the myotoxic activity of evaluated venoms. In these assays, the mix showed statistical differences regarding CP471474 (p < 0.05). The mixture also abolished the hemorrhagic activity of B. asper venom in preincubation assays, with no statistical differences to CP471474. Finally, the mixture showed inhibition in studies with independent administration in a time-dependent manner. To propose a mode of action of varespladib and CP471474, molecular docking was performed. PLA_2s and SVMPs from tested venoms were used as targets. In all cases, our molecular modeling results suggested that inhibitors may occupy the substrate-binding cleft of the enzymes, which was supported by specific interaction with amino acids from the active site, such as His48 for PLA_2s and Glu143 for the metalloproteinase. In addition, varespladib and CP471474 also showed interaction with residues from the hydrophobic channel in PLA_2s and substrate binding subsites in the SVMP. Our results suggest a synergistic action of the mixed inhibitors and show the potential of varespladib, CP471474, and their mixture to generate new treatments for snakebite envenoming with application in the field or as antivenom co-adjuvants.

Background: Biopolymer-based active packaging has experienced significant growth in the food industry due to its capacity to enhance product stability and reduce reliance on synthetic preservatives. However, its application in cosmetics remains limited, despite increasing consumer demand for sustainable and preservative-free solutions. Objective: This review evaluates the feasibility of transferring biopolymer-based active packaging technologies from the food sector to cosmetic applications, identifying relevant materials, processing methods, and implementation challenges. Methodology: A bibliographic search was conducted across nine databases (2000–2025) using the keywords “active packaging,” “antioxidant,” “antimicrobial,” and “biopolymers.” Results: The most recurrent biopolymers identified were chitosan, fish gelatin, zein, and kafirin, all of which exhibit biodegradability, film-forming capacity, and compatibility with natural additives. Although their intrinsic antioxidant and antimicrobial properties are limited, these can be enhanced through the incorporation of bioactive compounds. Processing techniques such as casting, coating, dry forming, and electrospinning were found to be the most effective, enabling customized packaging designs. Key challenges include cost, sensory attributes, mechanical limitations, and regulatory compliance. Conclusion: Active packaging systems based on biopolymers—either alone or combined with natural bioactive ingredients—offer a viable innovation pathway for the cosmetics industry. These systems support clean-label claims and ecological positioning, representing a strategic opportunity to adapt validated technologies from the food sector to meet emerging cosmetic market demands.

The Buenavista landfill is located east of the city of Medellín, but it has a slope steeper than 30% and is less than 600 m away from the Piedras River, possibly influencing the quality of the drinking water in the city. Many complex residues are disposed of in this landfill, including pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) such as levonorgestrel (LNG), which may reach water bodies via runoff and leaching. We assessed the levels of LNG in the effluent of an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor from the Buenavista landfill by uHPLC–DAD, as well as the endocrine disruptor effect of LNG on placental cell lines (BeWo) and human sperm cells. Additionally, the potential leaching of LNG was assayed under laboratory conditions using soil layers that were sampled from the Buenavista landfill. LNG was detected at levels of 315 μg·L⁻¹ in the effluents of the UASB reactor. Thus, the UASB reactor is not an efficient treatment method for the removal of recalcitrant pollutants. Additionally, we found that a layer of soil used as a cover material may adsorb more than 90% of LNG pollutants, but small amounts may still be leached, which means that a cover material is not a strong enough barrier to fully prevent the leaching of LNG. Finally, our results show that the leachate fraction decreased the levels of β-human chorionic gonadotropin, but not sperm motility or viability. Thus, leached LNG could trigger reproduction disorders, but further studies should be carried out to investigate its potential effects in more detail.

Polyphenolic antioxidants are incorporated into pharmaceutical, dermopharmaceutical, and cosmetic products because of their capacity to modulate oxidative stress, inflammation, microbial imbalance, skin aging, wound repair, and tumor-related processes. However, formulation is constrained by chemical instability, limited bioavailability, insufficient skin permeation, and degradation during processing or storage. This review integrates the chemical characteristics, natural sources, extraction approaches, antioxidant mechanisms, and evaluation of curcumin and chlorogenic acid, and critically examines their delivery through liposomes, niosomes, ethosomes, and transethosomes. Curcumin is lipophilic and poorly water-soluble, whereas chlorogenic acid is hydrophilic but permeability-limited. Their antioxidant activity is discussed through hydrogen atom transfer, single-electron transfer, interruption of lipid peroxidation, metal chelation, and localization within lipid interfaces, together with chemical, biomimetic, and cellular assessment methods. Vesicular carriers can improve encapsulation, stability, release control, skin interaction, biological performance, and incorporation into semisolid dosage forms. However, these benefits are accompanied by formulation-dependent trade-offs involving manufacturing complexity and cost, long-term stability and reproducibility, excipient-related skin tolerability, scale-up, and an application scope that depends on the intended dermal-delivery endpoint. Therefore, efficacy depends on the interplay among antioxidant properties, vesicle architecture, excipient selection, and processing conditions. Curcumin-loaded vesicles are better documented than chlorogenic-acid-loaded systems, particularly for deformable carriers. Future progress requires quality-by-design strategies, standardized characterization, predictive skin models, long-term stability and safety studies, and scalable manufacturing. Overall, antioxidant-loaded vesicles represent multifunctional platforms for developing stable and effective pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.