Despite the potential link between snack food intake and obesity and the reportedly high prevalence of snacking among adolescents, adolescent snack food patterns (types of foods consumed, frequency and portion size) have not been extensively examined. This study examines these issues using data on the snacking patterns of adolescents aged 13–16 years who took part in the 1997 National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) and that from a Northern Irish (NI) cohort of adolescents collected 8 years later, in 2005. Overall energy intake was significantly higher in the NI adolescents in 2005 compared with the NDNS adolescents in 1997 (P < 0·01). Consequently, energy intake from snacks was significantly higher in the NI cohort (P < 0·01) and a trend for a higher % energy intake from snacks compared with the NDNS group was observed (median 32·5 % v. 29·8 %, respectively). Sugar-sweetened carbonated and soft drinks remained the most popular choice of snack over this 8-year period; however, both the portion size consumed and frequency of consumption were significantly higher among the adolescents in 2005 compared with those in 1997 (P = 0·022 and P = 0·014, respectively). Despite the lower popularity, and correspondingly lower frequency of milks and beverages, the portion size of both food groups was significantly higher among the adolescents in 2005 compared with those in 1997 (P < 0·001 and P = 0·007, respectively). These findings may provide scope for policy interventions to place particular emphasis on reducing typical portion sizes consumed of popular snack choices, in particular high-energy carbonated and soft drinks, among UK adolescents.

Background: The concept of dietary folate equivalents (DFEs) in the United States recognizes the differences in bioavailability between natural food folates and the synthetic vitamin, folic acid. However, many published reports on folate bioavailability are problematic because of several confounding factors. Objective: We compared the bioavailability of food folates with that of folic acid under controlled conditions. To broadly represent the extent to which natural folates are conjugated in foods, we used 2 natural sources of folate, spinach (50% polyglutamyl folate) and yeast (100% polyglutamyl folate). Design: Ninety-six men were randomly assigned according to their screening plasma homocysteine (tHcy) concentration to 1 of 4 treatment groups for an intervention period of 30 d. Each subject received (daily under supervision) either a folate-depleted “carrier” meal or a drink plus 1) placebo tablet, 2) 200 μg folic acid in a tablet, 3) 200 μg natural folate provided as spinach, or 4) 200 μg natural folate provided as yeast. Results: Among the subjects who completed the intervention, responses (increase in serum folate, lowering of tHcy) relative to those in the placebo group (n = 18) were significant in the folic acid group (n = 18) but not in the yeast folate (n = 19) or the spinach folate (n = 18) groups. Both natural sources of folate were significantly less bioavailable than was folic acid. Overall estimations of folate bioavailability relative to that of folic acid were found to be between 30% (spinach) and 59% (yeast). Conclusion: Relative bioavailability estimates were consistent with the estimates from the metabolic study that were used as a basis to derive the US DFE value.

Breakfast consumption is associated with higher overall dietary adequacy; however, there is a lack of quantitative guidelines for optimal nutrient intakes at breakfast in the UK. This study aimed to investigate nutrient and food group intakes at breakfast and examine their relationship to overall Diet Quality (DQ). Data from the most recent National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS, 2008–2014) were accessed to provide a representative sample (n = 8174) of the UK population, aged 5–96 years, mean age of 33 years. Food intake was measured by a 4-day estimated food diary and DQ was assessed by the Nutrient Rich Food Index 9.3 method. Energy- and socio-economic-adjusted nutrient and food group intakes were compared across age groups and DQ tertiles by ANCOVA. Breakfast contributed 20–22% to total energy intake. Breakfast intakes of carbohydrate and non-milk extrinsic sugars (NMES) were higher, and intakes of protein, total fat and saturated fatty acid (SFA) were lower, than relative daily intakes. Breakfast was particularly rich in B vitamins, vitamin D, calcium, iron, iodine and magnesium. From the lowest to the highest DQ tertile decreasing intakes of NMES, SFA and total fat and increasing intakes of carbohydrate, protein, fibre and most micronutrients were found. These findings could help to inform the development of nutrient-based recommendations for a balanced breakfast for the first time in the UK.

OBJECTIVES. Folate and the metabolically related B vitamins are an important priority throughout life, but few studies have examined their status through childhood and adolescence. The aims of the current study were to investigate age, gender, and lifestyle factors as determinants of folate, related B-vitamin status, and homocysteine concentrations among British children and adolescents and to propose age-specific reference ranges for these biomarkers, which, at present, are unavailable.PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS. Data from the National Dietary and Nutritional Survey of 2127 young people aged 4 to 18 years were accessed to provide a representative sample of British children. All of the subjects who provided a blood sample for homocysteine concentrations were included in the current study (n = 840). Of these, laboratory biomarkers of folate (serum and red cell folate: n = 832 and 774, respectively), vitamin B12 (n = 828), vitamin B6 (n = 770), and riboflavin (n = 839) were also examined.RESULTS. The biomarker status of all 4 of the relevant B vitamins decreased significantly with age. Correspondingly, homocysteine concentrations progressively increased, with median values of 5.6, 6.3, and 7.9 μmol/L for children aged 4 to 10 years, 11 to 14 years, and 15 to 18 years, respectively, and were higher in boys compared with girls (15–18 years only). Independent of age and gender, fortified breakfast cereal intake (consumed by 89% of the sample) was associated with significantly higher B-vitamin status and lower homocysteine concentrations.CONCLUSIONS. It is not generally appreciated that the well-established progressive increase in homocysteine from 4 to 18 years reflects decreases in the biomarker status of all 4 metabolically related B vitamins. We suggest age-specific laboratory reference ranges for homocysteine and related B-vitamin concentrations for potential use within a pediatric setting.

Background: The contribution of energy density (ED) of the total diet to increased risk of obesity from childhood into adolescence is unclear. Objective: We assessed the relation between the ED of the diet in childhood, calculated in a number of ways, and change in adiposity from childhood to adolescence. Design: In a prospective study, 48 children (30 boys, 18 girls) were initially studied at age 6–8 y (baseline) and followed up at age 13–17 y. Daily ED, energy intake, and food intake were assessed at baseline by 7-d weighed food records concurrent with estimates of total energy expenditure (TEE) by doubly labeled water. ED was calculated with the use of 5 published methods. Obesity risk was defined with the use of body fat from total body water by isotope dilution. Body fat was normalized for height and expressed as fat mass index (FMI). Change in adiposity was calculated as follow-up FMI minus baseline FMI. Results: Misreporting of energy intake at the group level at baseline was low relative to the TEE. ED of the total diet at baseline by the 3 methods for calculating ED that excluded all or most beverages was prospectively associated with change in FMI. However, ED of the total diet by any of the methods was not associated with change in the percentage body fat, body mass index, or waist circumference z scores. Conclusion: The methods used to calculate ED and to assess obesity risk lead to different conclusions about the relation between the ED of the diet in childhood and gain in fat into adolescence.