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Arnau Vidal
Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium

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Journal article
Published: 11 May 2021 in Toxins
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Biomonitoring of biological samples arises as an effective tool to evaluate the exposure to mycotoxins in the population. Owing to the wide range of advantages, there is a growing interest in the use of non- and minimally invasive alternative sampling strategies, such as dried blood spot sampling or volumetric absorptive microsampling (VAMS). A VAMS-based multi-mycotoxin method was developed and validated for 24 different mycotoxins. Method validation was based on the Bioanalytical Method Validation Guideline of the Food and Drug Administration from the United States and for most of the studied mycotoxins, the results of the performance characteristics were in agreement with the criteria of the European Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. The recovery for the different mycotoxins was not haematocrit dependent and remained acceptable after storing the VAMS for 7 and 21 days at refrigeration temperature (4 °C) and room temperature, demonstrating that VAMS could be applied to assess mycotoxin exposure in blood in resource-limited areas, where there may be a delay between sampling and analysis. Finally, a comparison between VAMS and a procedure for liquid whole blood analysis, performed on 20 different blood samples, did not result in missed exposed cases for VAMS. Moreover, both methods detected similar levels of ochratoxin A, ochratoxin alpha, zearalenone and aflatoxin B1. Given all the benefits associated with VAMS and the developed method, VAMS sampling may serve as an alternative to conventional venous sampling to evaluate multiple mycotoxin exposure.

ACS Style

Arnau Vidal; Lidia Belova; Christophe Stove; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger. Volumetric Absorptive Microsampling as an Alternative Tool for Biomonitoring of Multi-Mycotoxin Exposure in Resource-Limited Areas. Toxins 2021, 13, 345 .

AMA Style

Arnau Vidal, Lidia Belova, Christophe Stove, Marthe De Boevre, Sarah De Saeger. Volumetric Absorptive Microsampling as an Alternative Tool for Biomonitoring of Multi-Mycotoxin Exposure in Resource-Limited Areas. Toxins. 2021; 13 (5):345.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arnau Vidal; Lidia Belova; Christophe Stove; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger. 2021. "Volumetric Absorptive Microsampling as an Alternative Tool for Biomonitoring of Multi-Mycotoxin Exposure in Resource-Limited Areas." Toxins 13, no. 5: 345.

Articles
Published: 22 January 2021 in Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A
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Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a type B trichothecene mycotoxin with worldwide high incidence in feed which is produced by Fusarium species. Strategies are needed to eliminate its health risk for livestock and to minimise its economic impact on production. In order to assess the efficacy of potential physical, chemical and biological DON detoxifying agents, a good in vitro model is necessary to perform a fast and high-throughput screening of new compounds before in vivo trials are set up. In this paper, an in vitro model was developed to screen potential commercial products for DON degradation and detoxification. Contaminated feed with potential detoxifying agents are first applied to a simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of a pig, after which detoxification is assessed through a robust, inexpensive and readily applicable Lemna minor L. aquatic plant bioassay which enables evaluation of the residual toxicity of possible metabolites formed by DON detoxifying agents. The GIT simulation enables taking matrix and incubation parameters into account as they can affect the binding, removal or degradation of DON. One product could reduce DON in feed in the GIT model for almost 100% after 6 h. DON metabolites were tentatively identified with LC-MS/MS. This GIT simulation coupled to a detoxification bioassay is a valuable model for in vitro screening and assessing compounds for DON detoxification, and could be expanded towards other mycotoxins. Graphical abstract

ACS Style

Ilse Vanhoutte; Jan Vande Ginste; Stefanie Verstringe; Arnau Vidal; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger; Kris Audenaert; Leen De Gelder. Development of an in vitro gastro-intestinal pig model to screen potential detoxifying agents for the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 2021, 38, 488 -500.

AMA Style

Ilse Vanhoutte, Jan Vande Ginste, Stefanie Verstringe, Arnau Vidal, Marthe De Boevre, Sarah De Saeger, Kris Audenaert, Leen De Gelder. Development of an in vitro gastro-intestinal pig model to screen potential detoxifying agents for the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A. 2021; 38 (3):488-500.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ilse Vanhoutte; Jan Vande Ginste; Stefanie Verstringe; Arnau Vidal; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger; Kris Audenaert; Leen De Gelder. 2021. "Development of an in vitro gastro-intestinal pig model to screen potential detoxifying agents for the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol." Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 38, no. 3: 488-500.

Journal article
Published: 16 November 2020 in Toxins
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Citrinin (CIT) is a polyketide mycotoxin occurring in a variety of food and feedstuff, among which cereal grains are the most important contaminated source. Pigs and poultry are important livestock animals frequently exposed to mycotoxins, including CIT. Concerns are rising related to the toxic, and especially the potential nephrotoxic, properties of CIT. The purpose of this study was to clarify the histopathological effects on kidneys, liver, jejunum and duodenum of pigs, broiler chickens and laying hens receiving CIT contaminated feed. During 3 weeks, pigs (n = 16) were exposed to feed containing 1 mg CIT/kg feed or to control feed (n = 4), while 2 groups of broiler chickens and laying hens (n = 8 per group) received 0.1 mg CIT/kg feed (lower dose group) and 3 or 3.5 mg CIT/kg feed (higher dose group), respectively, or control feed (n = 4). CIT concentrations were quantified in plasma, kidneys, liver, muscle and eggs using a validated ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method. Kidneys, liver, duodenum and jejunum were evaluated histologically using light microscopy, while the kidneys were further examined using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Histopathology did not reveal major abnormalities at the given contamination levels. However, a significant increase of swollen and degenerated mitochondria in renal cortical cells from all test groups were observed (p < 0.05). These observations could be related to oxidative stress, which is the major mechanism of CIT toxicity. Residues of CIT were detected in all collected tissues, except for muscle and egg white from layers in the lowest dose group, and egg white from layers in the highest dose group. CIT concentrations in plasma ranged between 0.1 (laying hens in lower dose group) and 20.8 ng/mL (pigs). In tissues, CIT concentrations ranged from 0.6 (muscle) to 20.3 µg/kg (liver) in pigs, while concentrations in chickens ranged from 0.1 (muscle) to 70.2 µg/kg (liver). Carry-over ratios from feed to edible tissues were between 0.1 and 2% in pigs, and between 0.1 and 6.9% in chickens, suggesting a low contribution of pig and poultry tissue-derived products towards the total dietary CIT intake for humans.

ACS Style

Celine Meerpoel; Arnau Vidal; Emmanuel K. Tangni; Bart Huybrechts; Liesbeth Couck; Riet De Rycke; Lobke De Bels; Sarah De Saeger; Wim Van Den Broeck; Mathias Devreese; Siska Croubels. A Study of Carry-Over and Histopathological Effects after Chronic Dietary Intake of Citrinin in Pigs, Broiler Chickens and Laying Hens. Toxins 2020, 12, 719 .

AMA Style

Celine Meerpoel, Arnau Vidal, Emmanuel K. Tangni, Bart Huybrechts, Liesbeth Couck, Riet De Rycke, Lobke De Bels, Sarah De Saeger, Wim Van Den Broeck, Mathias Devreese, Siska Croubels. A Study of Carry-Over and Histopathological Effects after Chronic Dietary Intake of Citrinin in Pigs, Broiler Chickens and Laying Hens. Toxins. 2020; 12 (11):719.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Celine Meerpoel; Arnau Vidal; Emmanuel K. Tangni; Bart Huybrechts; Liesbeth Couck; Riet De Rycke; Lobke De Bels; Sarah De Saeger; Wim Van Den Broeck; Mathias Devreese; Siska Croubels. 2020. "A Study of Carry-Over and Histopathological Effects after Chronic Dietary Intake of Citrinin in Pigs, Broiler Chickens and Laying Hens." Toxins 12, no. 11: 719.

Journal article
Published: 19 April 2020 in Food and Chemical Toxicology
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A comprehensive toxicokinetic analysis of citrinin (CIT) revealed interspecies differences for all toxicokinetic parameters and in absolute oral bioavailability. Oral bioavailability for CIT was complete for broilers (113–131%), while ranging from 37 to 44% in pigs. CIT was more rapidly absorbed in pigs (Tmax = 0.92 h) compared to broiler chickens (Tmax = 7.33 h). The elimination of CIT was slower in pigs (T1/2el = 26.81 h after intravenous (IV) administration) compared to chickens (T1/2el = 1.97 h after IV administration), due to the striking difference in clearance (Cliv=9.87 mL/h/kg for pigs versus Cliv = 863.09 mL/h/kg for broilers). Also, the volume of distribution differed significantly between pigs (Vd = 0.30 L/kg after IV administration) and chickens (Vd = 2.46 L/kg after IV administration). However, plasma protein binding did not differ statistically significant (91–98%). It is imperative to further investigate biotransformation and elimination pathways in different species, including humans.

ACS Style

Celine Meerpoel; Arnau Vidal; Bart Huybrechts; Emmanuel K. Tangni; Sarah De Saeger; Siska Croubels; Mathias Devreese. Comprehensive toxicokinetic analysis reveals major interspecies differences in absorption, distribution and elimination of citrinin in pigs and broiler chickens. Food and Chemical Toxicology 2020, 141, 111365 .

AMA Style

Celine Meerpoel, Arnau Vidal, Bart Huybrechts, Emmanuel K. Tangni, Sarah De Saeger, Siska Croubels, Mathias Devreese. Comprehensive toxicokinetic analysis reveals major interspecies differences in absorption, distribution and elimination of citrinin in pigs and broiler chickens. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2020; 141 ():111365.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Celine Meerpoel; Arnau Vidal; Bart Huybrechts; Emmanuel K. Tangni; Sarah De Saeger; Siska Croubels; Mathias Devreese. 2020. "Comprehensive toxicokinetic analysis reveals major interspecies differences in absorption, distribution and elimination of citrinin in pigs and broiler chickens." Food and Chemical Toxicology 141, no. : 111365.

Journal article
Published: 02 April 2020 in Food Research International
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Human biomonitoring is an important tool to assess human exposure to chemicals, contributing to describe trends of exposure over time and to identify population groups that could be under risk. Aflatoxins are genotoxic and carcinogenic food contaminants causing hepatocellular carcinoma, the third leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. In Portugal, scarce data are available regarding exposure to aflatoxins and no previous study used human biomonitoring data to comprehensively characterize the associated burden of disease. 24 h urine and first-morning urine paired samples were collected by 94 participants and were analyzed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry for the quantitative determination of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2 and M1). Deterministic and probabilistic models were developed to assess the Portuguese exposure to aflatoxins and to estimate the health impact of this exposure, estimating the attributed Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). Aflatoxins were detected in a maximum of 13% (AFB1), 16% (AFB2), 1% (AFG1), 2% (AFG2) and 19% (AFM1) of the urine samples. Data obtained through the probabilistic approach revealed an estimated mean probable daily intake of 13.43 ng/kg body weight per day resulting in 0.13 extra cases of hepatocellular carcinoma, corresponding to mean annual DALYs of 172.8 for the Portuguese population (10 291 027 inhabitants). The present study generated for the first time and within a human biomonitoring study, reliable and crucial data to characterize the burden associated to the exposure to aflatoxins of the Portuguese population. The obtained results constitute an imperative support to risk managers in the establishment of preventive policy measures that contribute to ensure public health protection.

ACS Style

C. Martins; Arnau Vidal; M. De Boevre; S. De Saeger; C. Nunes; D. Torres; A. Goios; C. Lopes; Paula Alvito; R. Assunção. Burden of disease associated with dietary exposure to carcinogenic aflatoxins in Portugal using human biomonitoring approach. Food Research International 2020, 134, 109210 .

AMA Style

C. Martins, Arnau Vidal, M. De Boevre, S. De Saeger, C. Nunes, D. Torres, A. Goios, C. Lopes, Paula Alvito, R. Assunção. Burden of disease associated with dietary exposure to carcinogenic aflatoxins in Portugal using human biomonitoring approach. Food Research International. 2020; 134 ():109210.

Chicago/Turabian Style

C. Martins; Arnau Vidal; M. De Boevre; S. De Saeger; C. Nunes; D. Torres; A. Goios; C. Lopes; Paula Alvito; R. Assunção. 2020. "Burden of disease associated with dietary exposure to carcinogenic aflatoxins in Portugal using human biomonitoring approach." Food Research International 134, no. : 109210.

Communication
Published: 24 February 2020 in Toxins
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Deoxynivalenol is one of the most ubiquitous mycotoxins in the Western diet through its presence in cereals and cereal products. A vast amount of studies indicate the worrying level of exposure to this toxin, while even high percentages of the population exceed the tolerable daily intake. To evaluate and assess dietary exposure, analysis of urinary levels of deoxynivalenol and its glucuronides has been proposed as a reliable methodology. An indirect preliminary method was used based on the cleavage of deoxynivalenol glucuronides through the use of enzymes (β-glucuronidase) and subsequent determination of "total deoxynivalenol" (sum of free and released mycotoxins by hydrolysis). Next, a direct procedure for quantification of deoxynivalenol-3-glucuronide and deoxynivalenol-15-glucuronide was developed. As deoxynivalenol glucuronides reference standards are not commercially available, the indirect method is widely applied. However, to not underestimate the total deoxynivalenol exposure in urine, the direct and indirect methodologies need to be compared. Urinary samples (n = 96) with a confirmed presence of deoxynivalenol and/or deoxynivalenol glucuronides were analysed using both approaches. The indirect method clarified that not all deoxynivalenol glucuronides were transformed to free deoxynivalenol during enzymatic treatment, causing an underestimation of total deoxynivalenol. This short communication concludes on the application of direct or indirect assessment of urinary deoxynivalenol.

ACS Style

Arnau Vidal; Nabila Bouzaghnane; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. Human Mycotoxin Biomonitoring: Conclusive Remarks on Direct or Indirect Assessment of Urinary Deoxynivalenol. Toxins 2020, 12, 139 .

AMA Style

Arnau Vidal, Nabila Bouzaghnane, Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre. Human Mycotoxin Biomonitoring: Conclusive Remarks on Direct or Indirect Assessment of Urinary Deoxynivalenol. Toxins. 2020; 12 (2):139.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arnau Vidal; Nabila Bouzaghnane; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. 2020. "Human Mycotoxin Biomonitoring: Conclusive Remarks on Direct or Indirect Assessment of Urinary Deoxynivalenol." Toxins 12, no. 2: 139.

Journal article
Published: 13 February 2020 in Toxins
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Zearalenone and alternariol are mycotoxins produced by Fusarium and Alternaria species, respectively, that present estrogenic activity and consequently are classified as endocrine disruptors. To estimate the exposure of the Portuguese population to these two mycotoxins at a national level, a modelling approach, based on data from 94 Portuguese volunteers, was developed considering as inputs: i) the food consumption data generated within the National Food and Physical Activity Survey; and ii) the human biomonitoring data used to assess the exposure to the referred mycotoxins. Six models of association between mycoestrogens urinary levels (zearalenone, total zearalenone and alternariol) and food items (meat, cheese, and fresh-cheese, breakfast cereals, sweets) were established. Applying the obtained models to the consumption data (n = 5811) of the general population, the median estimates of the probable daily intake revealed that a fraction of the Portuguese population might exceed the tolerable daily intake defined for zearalenone. A reference intake value for alternariol is still lacking, thus the characterization of risk due to the exposure to this mycotoxin was not possible to perform. Although the unavoidable uncertainties, these results are important contributions to understand the exposure to endocrine disruptors in Portugal and the potential Public Health consequences.

ACS Style

Carla Martins; Duarte Torres; Carla Lopes; Daniela Correia; Ana Goios; Ricardo Assunção; Paula Alvito; Arnau Vidal; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger; Carla Nunes. Food Consumption Data as a Tool to Estimate Exposure to Mycoestrogens. Toxins 2020, 12, 118 .

AMA Style

Carla Martins, Duarte Torres, Carla Lopes, Daniela Correia, Ana Goios, Ricardo Assunção, Paula Alvito, Arnau Vidal, Marthe De Boevre, Sarah De Saeger, Carla Nunes. Food Consumption Data as a Tool to Estimate Exposure to Mycoestrogens. Toxins. 2020; 12 (2):118.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Carla Martins; Duarte Torres; Carla Lopes; Daniela Correia; Ana Goios; Ricardo Assunção; Paula Alvito; Arnau Vidal; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger; Carla Nunes. 2020. "Food Consumption Data as a Tool to Estimate Exposure to Mycoestrogens." Toxins 12, no. 2: 118.

Journal article
Published: 27 November 2019 in Food and Chemical Toxicology
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Biomarker-driven research has been proposed as a successful method to assess the exposure of individuals to xenobiotics, including mycotoxins, through estimation of their metabolites in biological fluids. A methodology to determine patulin (PAT) and citrinin (CIT) in human urine and plasma using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was developed and validated in the present study. Selectivity/specificity, linearity, limit of detection and quantification, apparent recovery, intraday- and interday-precision and measurement uncertainty were investigated for validation purposes. Finally, the method was used to analyze human urine (n = 100) and plasma (n = 100) case-control samples, where 50 samples originated from colorectal cancer patients and 50 from age/sex-matched controls. This case-control study revealed that PAT was not detected in urine samples, however occurred in 25% of the analysed plasma samples with an average concentration of 11.62 ± 6.67 ng/mL in the positive samples. CIT was found in urine samples (74%) and plasma samples (36%) with average concentrations in the positive samples of 0.45 ± 0.24 ng/mL and 0.49 ± 0.2 ng/mL respectively. No statistically significant difference of PAT and CIT concentration among colorectal cancer and control patients (p > 0.05) was observed.

ACS Style

Salma Ouhibi; Arnau Vidal; Carla Martins; Ridha Gali; Abderrazzek Hedhili; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. LC-MS/MS methodology for simultaneous determination of patulin and citrinin in urine and plasma applied to a pilot study in colorectal cancer patients. Food and Chemical Toxicology 2019, 136, 110994 .

AMA Style

Salma Ouhibi, Arnau Vidal, Carla Martins, Ridha Gali, Abderrazzek Hedhili, Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre. LC-MS/MS methodology for simultaneous determination of patulin and citrinin in urine and plasma applied to a pilot study in colorectal cancer patients. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2019; 136 ():110994.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Salma Ouhibi; Arnau Vidal; Carla Martins; Ridha Gali; Abderrazzek Hedhili; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. 2019. "LC-MS/MS methodology for simultaneous determination of patulin and citrinin in urine and plasma applied to a pilot study in colorectal cancer patients." Food and Chemical Toxicology 136, no. : 110994.

Journal article
Published: 08 August 2019 in Toxins
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Biomarkers for the determination of the dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON) have been proposed in the past but so far no quantification of their use in humans has been carried out. Following a human intervention study with two mycotoxins, namely DON and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON3G), the renal excretion of these compounds, including their phase II metabolites, was analysed. The purpose was to develop biokinetic models that can be used to determine: (1) the preferred (set of) urinary biomarker(s), (2) the preferred urinary collection period, and (3) a method to estimate the dietary exposure to these mycotoxins. Twenty adult volunteers were restricted in consuming cereals and cereal-based foods for 4 days. At day 3, a single dose of 1 µg/kg body weight of DON or DON3G was orally administered to 16 volunteers; 4 volunteers served as control. All individual urine discharges were collected during 24 h after administration. The metabolism and renal excretion could be described by a biokinetic model using three physiological compartments (gastrointestinal tract, liver, and kidneys). Kinetic analysis revealed a complete recovery of the renal excretion of total DON (mainly DON and its glucuronides) within 24 h after administration of DON or DON3G. The so-called ‘reverse dosimetry’ factor was used to determine the preferred (set of) biomarker(s) and to estimate the dietary intake of the parent compounds in the future. The fact that DON3G was absorbed and mainly excreted as DON and its glucuronides confirms that DON3G (as well as other modified forms) should be taken into account in the exposure and risk assessment of this group of mycotoxins.

ACS Style

Marcel Mengelers; Marco Zeilmaker; Arnau Vidal; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger; Rudolf Hoogenveen. Biomonitoring of Deoxynivalenol and Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside in Human Volunteers: Renal Excretion Profiles. Toxins 2019, 11, 466 .

AMA Style

Marcel Mengelers, Marco Zeilmaker, Arnau Vidal, Marthe De Boevre, Sarah De Saeger, Rudolf Hoogenveen. Biomonitoring of Deoxynivalenol and Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside in Human Volunteers: Renal Excretion Profiles. Toxins. 2019; 11 (8):466.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Marcel Mengelers; Marco Zeilmaker; Arnau Vidal; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger; Rudolf Hoogenveen. 2019. "Biomonitoring of Deoxynivalenol and Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside in Human Volunteers: Renal Excretion Profiles." Toxins 11, no. 8: 466.

Journal article
Published: 26 June 2019 in International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health
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Mycotoxins constitute a relevant group of food contaminants with several associated health outcomes such as estrogenic, immunotoxic, nephrotoxic and teratogenic effects. Although scarce data are available in Portugal, human biomonitoring studies have been globally developed to assess the exposure to mycotoxins at individual level. In order to overcome this lack of data, the present study concerned the analysis of mycotoxins in 24h urine and first-morning urine paired samples from 94 participants enrolled within the scope of the National Food, Nutrition, and Physical Activity Survey of the Portuguese General Population (2015–2016). Following a salt-assisted matrix extraction, urine samples were analysed by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry for the simultaneous determination of 37 urinary mycotoxins’ biomarkers and data obtained used to estimate the probable daily intake as well as the risk characterization applying the Hazard Quotient approach. Results revealed the exposure of Portuguese population to zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, alternariol, citrinin and fumonisin B1 through the quantification in 24h urine and first-morning urine paired samples. Risk characterization data revealed a potential concern to some reported mycotoxins since the reference intake values were exceeded by some of the considered participants. Alternariol was identified for the first time in urine samples from a European country; however, risk characterization was not performed due to lack of reference intake value. These results confirmed mycotoxins as part of the human exposome of the Portuguese population reinforcing the need for further studies regarding the determinants of exposure.

ACS Style

C. Martins; Arnau Vidal; M. De Boevre; S. De Saeger; C. Nunes; Duarte Torres; A. Goios; Carla Lopes; Ricardo Assunção; Paula Alvito. Exposure assessment of Portuguese population to multiple mycotoxins: The human biomonitoring approach. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 2019, 222, 913 -925.

AMA Style

C. Martins, Arnau Vidal, M. De Boevre, S. De Saeger, C. Nunes, Duarte Torres, A. Goios, Carla Lopes, Ricardo Assunção, Paula Alvito. Exposure assessment of Portuguese population to multiple mycotoxins: The human biomonitoring approach. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 2019; 222 (6):913-925.

Chicago/Turabian Style

C. Martins; Arnau Vidal; M. De Boevre; S. De Saeger; C. Nunes; Duarte Torres; A. Goios; Carla Lopes; Ricardo Assunção; Paula Alvito. 2019. "Exposure assessment of Portuguese population to multiple mycotoxins: The human biomonitoring approach." International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 222, no. 6: 913-925.

Review
Published: 28 April 2019 in Food and Chemical Toxicology
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Patulin (PAT) is a common mycotoxin in fruit products, especially in apples and apple-based products. The European Commission has set maximum levels for PAT in food. Nevertheless, worrying PAT levels were recently recorded in diverse foods across the world. Therefore, a worldwide follow-up of PAT-levels in foods should be considered. Because of PAT's high probability in food products, the toxicological implications for humans need to be addressed as well. Recent studies proved adverse health effects of PAT, such as hepatotoxicity, gastrointestinal alterations and inmunotoxicity. In comparison to the toxicity of other mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A, PAT's immunotoxicity can be even more outspoken destructive. In addition, PAT is a low-molecular-weight and highly polar molecule, resulting in many analytical challenges for its detection. As the analytical techniques are continuously improving, PAT determination in multi-mycotoxin analysis has advanced using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) during the last year. Finally, the presence and toxicity of PAT requires a biomarker method to assess its exposure among the population. To date, however, there is no information regarding PAT biomarkers in biological samples. This short review highlights the PAT-occurrence profile, toxicological discoveries and analytical challenges of 2014 until to date.

ACS Style

Arnau Vidal; Salma Ouhibi; Ridha Ghali; Abderrazek Hedhili; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. The mycotoxin patulin: An updated short review on occurrence, toxicity and analytical challenges. Food and Chemical Toxicology 2019, 129, 249 -256.

AMA Style

Arnau Vidal, Salma Ouhibi, Ridha Ghali, Abderrazek Hedhili, Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre. The mycotoxin patulin: An updated short review on occurrence, toxicity and analytical challenges. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2019; 129 ():249-256.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arnau Vidal; Salma Ouhibi; Ridha Ghali; Abderrazek Hedhili; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. 2019. "The mycotoxin patulin: An updated short review on occurrence, toxicity and analytical challenges." Food and Chemical Toxicology 129, no. : 249-256.

Toxicokinetics and metabolism
Published: 10 December 2018 in Archives of Toxicology
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A clinical case in Belgium demonstrated that feeding a feed concentrate containing considerable levels of deoxynivalenol (DON, 1.13 mg/kg feed) induced severe liver failure in 2- to 3-month-old beef calves. Symptoms disappeared by replacing the highly contaminated corn and by stimulating ruminal development via roughage administration. A multi-mycotoxin contamination was demonstrated in feed samples collected at 15 different veal farms in Belgium. DON was most prevalent, contaminating 80% of the roughage samples (mixed straw and maize silage; average concentration in positives: 637 ± 621 µg/kg, max. 1818 µg/kg), and all feed concentrate samples (411 ± 156 µg/kg, max. 693 µg/kg). In order to evaluate the impact of roughage provision and its associated ruminal development on the gastro-intestinal absorption and biodegradation of DON and its acetylated derivatives (3- and 15-ADON) in calves, a toxicokinetic study was performed with two ruminating and two non-ruminating male calves. Animals received in succession a bolus of DON (120 µg/kg bodyweight (BW)), 15-ADON (50 µg/kg BW), and 3-ADON (25 µg/kg) by intravenous (IV) injection or per os (PO) in a cross-over design. The absolute oral bioavailability of DON was much higher in non-ruminating calves (50.7 ± 33.0%) compared to ruminating calves (4.1 ± 4.5%). Immediately following exposure, 3- and 15-ADON were hydrolysed to DON in ruminating calves. DON and its acetylated metabolites were mainly metabolized to DON-3-glucuronide, however, also small amounts of DON-15-glucuronide were detected in urine. DON degradation to deepoxy-DON (DOM-1) was only observed to a relevant extent in ruminating calves. Consequently, toxicity of DON in calves is closely related to roughage provision and the associated stage of ruminal development.

ACS Style

Bonnie Valgaeren; Léonard Théron; Siska Croubels; Mathias Devreese; Siegrid De Baere; Els Van Pamel; Els Daeseleire; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger; Arnau Vidal; José Diana Di Mavungu; Philipp Fruhmann; Gerhard Adam; Alfons Callebaut; Calixte Bayrou; Vincent Frisée; Anne-Sophie Rao; Emilie Knapp; Arnaud Sartelet; Bart Pardon; Piet Deprez; Gunther Antonissen. The role of roughage provision on the absorption and disposition of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its acetylated derivatives in calves: from field observations to toxicokinetics. Archives of Toxicology 2018, 93, 293 -310.

AMA Style

Bonnie Valgaeren, Léonard Théron, Siska Croubels, Mathias Devreese, Siegrid De Baere, Els Van Pamel, Els Daeseleire, Marthe De Boevre, Sarah De Saeger, Arnau Vidal, José Diana Di Mavungu, Philipp Fruhmann, Gerhard Adam, Alfons Callebaut, Calixte Bayrou, Vincent Frisée, Anne-Sophie Rao, Emilie Knapp, Arnaud Sartelet, Bart Pardon, Piet Deprez, Gunther Antonissen. The role of roughage provision on the absorption and disposition of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its acetylated derivatives in calves: from field observations to toxicokinetics. Archives of Toxicology. 2018; 93 (2):293-310.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Bonnie Valgaeren; Léonard Théron; Siska Croubels; Mathias Devreese; Siegrid De Baere; Els Van Pamel; Els Daeseleire; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger; Arnau Vidal; José Diana Di Mavungu; Philipp Fruhmann; Gerhard Adam; Alfons Callebaut; Calixte Bayrou; Vincent Frisée; Anne-Sophie Rao; Emilie Knapp; Arnaud Sartelet; Bart Pardon; Piet Deprez; Gunther Antonissen. 2018. "The role of roughage provision on the absorption and disposition of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its acetylated derivatives in calves: from field observations to toxicokinetics." Archives of Toxicology 93, no. 2: 293-310.

Journal article
Published: 22 October 2018 in Journal of Chromatography A
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An ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI+/−-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous analysis of citrinin (CIT) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in feed (chicken,pig) and food (cereal-based products, fruit, vegetable juices, nuts, seeds, herbs, spices, vegetarian and soy products, alcoholic beverages, baby food products,food supplements) was developed. The mycotoxins were extracted from these matrices using a QuEChERS-based extraction method without any further clean-up step. The samples were 5-fold concentrated. Final extracts were analyzed using a UPLC-MS/MS system and chromatographic separation was achieved by applying a gradient elution for a total run time of 10 minutes. Mycotoxins were quantified using an internal calibration via analyte/13C-labeled internal standard ratio. The developed method was validated according to the criteria described in Commission Regulation No. 401/2006/EC and Commission Decision No. 2002/657/EC. Specificity, linearity, apparent recovery, limit of detection and quantification, intraday and interday precision, measurement uncertainty, matrix effect, and extraction efficiency were the parameters studied. Finally, 90 Belgian chicken and pig feed samples were analyzed, revealing the simultaneous presence of CIT (

ACS Style

Celine Meerpoel; Arnau Vidal; José Diana di Mavungu; Bart Huybrechts; Emmanuel K. Tangni; Mathias Devreese; Siska Croubels; Sarah De Saeger. Development and validation of an LC–MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of citrinin and ochratoxin a in a variety of feed and foodstuffs. Journal of Chromatography A 2018, 1580, 100 -109.

AMA Style

Celine Meerpoel, Arnau Vidal, José Diana di Mavungu, Bart Huybrechts, Emmanuel K. Tangni, Mathias Devreese, Siska Croubels, Sarah De Saeger. Development and validation of an LC–MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of citrinin and ochratoxin a in a variety of feed and foodstuffs. Journal of Chromatography A. 2018; 1580 ():100-109.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Celine Meerpoel; Arnau Vidal; José Diana di Mavungu; Bart Huybrechts; Emmanuel K. Tangni; Mathias Devreese; Siska Croubels; Sarah De Saeger. 2018. "Development and validation of an LC–MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of citrinin and ochratoxin a in a variety of feed and foodstuffs." Journal of Chromatography A 1580, no. : 100-109.

Journal article
Published: 06 July 2018 in Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
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To date, the use of biomarkers has become generally accepted. Biomarker‐driven research has been proposed as a successful method to assess the exposure to xenobiotics by using concentrations of the parent compounds and/or metabolites in biological matrices such as urine or blood. However, the identification and validation of biomarkers of exposure remain a challenge. Recent advances in high‐resolution mass spectrometry along with new analytical (post‐acquisition data‐mining) techniques will improve the quality and output of the biomarker identification process. Chronic or even acute exposure to mycotoxins remains a daily fact, and therefore it is crucial that the mycotoxins’ metabolism is unravelled so more knowledge on biomarkers in humans and animals is acquired. This review aims to provide the scientific community with a comprehensive overview of reported in vitro and in vivo mycotoxin metabolism studies in relation to biomarkers of exposure for deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, fusarenon‐X, T‐2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, ochratoxin A, citrinin, fumonisins, zearalenone, aflatoxins, and sterigmatocystin.

ACS Style

Arnau Vidal; Marcel Mengelers; Shupeng Yang; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. Mycotoxin Biomarkers of Exposure: A Comprehensive Review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 2018, 17, 1127 -1155.

AMA Style

Arnau Vidal, Marcel Mengelers, Shupeng Yang, Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre. Mycotoxin Biomarkers of Exposure: A Comprehensive Review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2018; 17 (5):1127-1155.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arnau Vidal; Marcel Mengelers; Shupeng Yang; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. 2018. "Mycotoxin Biomarkers of Exposure: A Comprehensive Review." Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 17, no. 5: 1127-1155.

Journal article
Published: 01 May 2018 in Food Chemistry
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Aflatoxins are the most potent genotoxic and carcinogenic mycotoxins. To date, research has only focused on the presence of free aflatoxins in agricultural commodities. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to investigate the occurrence of possible modified aflatoxins in maize. Different hydrolysis methods were applied to convert modified mycotoxins into their free aflatoxins. Eighteen aflatoxin-contaminated maize samples were incubated with potassium hydroxide, trifluoromethanesulfonic acid and several enzymes to induce hydrolysis. Potassium hydroxide caused a total reduction of aflatoxins, while trifluoromethanesulfonic acid did not lead to an increase in free aflatoxins, neither did treatment with a protease. However, α-amylase and cellulase incubation caused significant increases in the total free aflatoxin content, 15 ± 8% and 13 ± 5%, respectively. These results show that a small proportion of aflatoxins could be associated to matrix substances in plants. Consequently, hydrolysis could occur during food processing and during mammalian digestion, leading to an underestimation of the total aflatoxin content.

ACS Style

Arnau Vidal; Sonia Marín; Vicente Sanchis; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. Hydrolysers of modified mycotoxins in maize: α-Amylase and cellulase induce an underestimation of the total aflatoxin content. Food Chemistry 2018, 248, 86 -92.

AMA Style

Arnau Vidal, Sonia Marín, Vicente Sanchis, Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre. Hydrolysers of modified mycotoxins in maize: α-Amylase and cellulase induce an underestimation of the total aflatoxin content. Food Chemistry. 2018; 248 ():86-92.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arnau Vidal; Sonia Marín; Vicente Sanchis; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. 2018. "Hydrolysers of modified mycotoxins in maize: α-Amylase and cellulase induce an underestimation of the total aflatoxin content." Food Chemistry 248, no. : 86-92.

Journal article
Published: 27 March 2018 in Scientific Reports
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For the first time, a comprehensive human intervention study was conducted to unravel the urinary excretion profile and metabolism of the fungal metabolite deoxynivalenol (DON) and its modified form deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3-glucoside). Twenty volunteers were restricted in consuming cereals and cereal-based foods for 4 days. At day 3, a single bolus of 1 µg/kg body weight of DON and a single bolus of 1 µg/kg body weight of DON-3-glucoside after a washing-out period of two months was administered, and a 24-h urine collection was performed. The urine was analysed for DON, DON-3-glucoside, 3-ADON, 15-ADON, deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1), deoxynivalenol-3-glucuronide (DON-3-glucuronide) and deoxynivalenol-15-glucuronide (DON-15-glucuronide). The urinary biomarker-analysis revealed that DON and DON-3-glucoside were rapidly absorbed, distributed, metabolized and excreted. Sixty-four % of the administered DON and 58% of DON-3-glucoside was recovered in the urine collected within 24 h. DON-15-glucuronide was the most prominent urinary biomarker followed by free DON and DON-3-glucuronide. Moreover, correlations among the presence of DON-15-glucuronide and DON-3-glucuronide were observed (within 24 hours (r = 0.61)). The DOM-1 detected in the urine was higher after the DON-3-glucoside administration. The obtained results are imperative to construct a standardized method to estimate DON-intake by means of urinary biomarkers.

ACS Style

Arnau Vidal; Liesel Claeys; Marcel Mengelers; Valérie Vanhoorne; Chris Vervaet; Bart Huybrechts; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. Humans significantly metabolize and excrete the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its modified form deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside within 24 hours. Scientific Reports 2018, 8, 5255 .

AMA Style

Arnau Vidal, Liesel Claeys, Marcel Mengelers, Valérie Vanhoorne, Chris Vervaet, Bart Huybrechts, Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre. Humans significantly metabolize and excrete the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its modified form deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside within 24 hours. Scientific Reports. 2018; 8 (1):5255.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arnau Vidal; Liesel Claeys; Marcel Mengelers; Valérie Vanhoorne; Chris Vervaet; Bart Huybrechts; Sarah De Saeger; Marthe De Boevre. 2018. "Humans significantly metabolize and excrete the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its modified form deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside within 24 hours." Scientific Reports 8, no. 1: 5255.

Original research article
Published: 26 January 2018 in Frontiers in Microbiology
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Aspergillus flavus is the main producer of carcinogenic aflatoxins in agricultural commodities such as maize. This fungus occurs naturally on crops, and produces aflatoxins when environmental conditions are favorable. The aim of this study is to analyse the genetic variability among 109 A. flavus isolates previously recovered from maize sampled from a known aflatoxin-hotspot (Eastern region, Kenya) and the major maize-growing area in the Rift Valley (Kenya), and to determine their toxigenic potential. DNA analyses of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of ribosomal DNA, partial β-tubulin gene (benA) and calmodulin gene (CaM) sequences were used. The strains were further analyzed for the presence of four aflatoxin-biosynthesis genes in relation to their capability to produce aflatoxins and other metabolites, targeting the regulatory gene aflR and the structural genes aflP, aflD, and aflQ. In addition, the metabolic profile of the fungal strains was unraveled using state-of-the-art LC-MS/MS instrumentation. The three gene-sequence data grouped the isolates into two major clades, A. minisclerotigenes and A. flavus. A. minisclerotigenes was most prevalent in Eastern Kenya, while A. flavus was common in both regions. A. parasiticus was represented by a single isolate collected from Rift Valley. Diversity existed within the A. flavus population, which formed several subclades. An inconsistency in identification of some isolates using the three markers was observed. The calmodulin gene sequences showed wider variation of polymorphisms. The aflatoxin production pattern was not consistent with the presence of aflatoxigenic genes, suggesting an inability of the primers to always detect the genes or presence of genetic mutations. Significant variation was observed in toxin profiles of the isolates. This is the first time that a profound metabolic profiling of A. flavus isolates was done in Kenya. Positive associations were evident for some metabolites, while for others no associations were found and for a few metabolite-pairs negative associations were seen. Additionally, the growth medium influenced the mycotoxin metabolite production. These results confirm the wide variation that exists among the group A. flavus and the need for more insight in clustering the group.

ACS Style

Sheila Okoth; Marthe De Boevre; Arnau Vidal; José Diana Di Mavungu; Sofie Landschoot; Martina Kyallo; Joyce Njuguna; Jagger Harvey; Sarah De Saeger. Genetic and Toxigenic Variability within Aspergillus flavus Population Isolated from Maize in Two Diverse Environments in Kenya. Frontiers in Microbiology 2018, 9, 57 .

AMA Style

Sheila Okoth, Marthe De Boevre, Arnau Vidal, José Diana Di Mavungu, Sofie Landschoot, Martina Kyallo, Joyce Njuguna, Jagger Harvey, Sarah De Saeger. Genetic and Toxigenic Variability within Aspergillus flavus Population Isolated from Maize in Two Diverse Environments in Kenya. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2018; 9 ():57.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sheila Okoth; Marthe De Boevre; Arnau Vidal; José Diana Di Mavungu; Sofie Landschoot; Martina Kyallo; Joyce Njuguna; Jagger Harvey; Sarah De Saeger. 2018. "Genetic and Toxigenic Variability within Aspergillus flavus Population Isolated from Maize in Two Diverse Environments in Kenya." Frontiers in Microbiology 9, no. : 57.

Journal article
Published: 01 December 2017 in Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A
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The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most common mycotoxins of cereals worldwide, and its occurrence has been widely reported in raw wheat. The free mycotoxin form is not the only route of exposure; modified forms can also be present in cereal products. Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3-glucoside) is a common DON plant conjugate. The mycotoxin concentration could be affected by food processing; here, we studied the stability of DON and DON-3-glucoside during baking of small doughs made from white wheat flour and other ingredients. A range of common food additives and ingredients were added to assess possible interference: ascorbic acid (E300), citric acid (E330), sorbic acid (E200), calcium propionate (E282), lecithin (E322), diacetyltartaric acid esters of fatty acid mono- and diglycerides (E472a), calcium phosphate (E341), disodium diphosphate (E450i), xanthan gum (E415), polydextrose (E1200), sorbitol (E420i), sodium bicarbonate (E500i), wheat gluten and malt flour. The DON content was reduced by 40%, and the DON-3-glucoside concentration increased by >100%, after baking for 20 min at 180°C. This confirmed that DON and DON-3-glucoside concentrations can vary during heating, and DON-3-glucoside could even increase after baking. However, DON and DON-3-glucoside are not affected significantly by the presence of the food additives tested.

ACS Style

Arnau Vidal; Vicente Sanchis; Antonio J. Ramos; Sonia Marín. Stability of DON and DON-3-glucoside during baking as affected by the presence of food additives. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 2017, 35, 529 -537.

AMA Style

Arnau Vidal, Vicente Sanchis, Antonio J. Ramos, Sonia Marín. Stability of DON and DON-3-glucoside during baking as affected by the presence of food additives. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A. 2017; 35 (3):529-537.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arnau Vidal; Vicente Sanchis; Antonio J. Ramos; Sonia Marín. 2017. "Stability of DON and DON-3-glucoside during baking as affected by the presence of food additives." Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 35, no. 3: 529-537.

Journal article
Published: 01 November 2017 in Food Research International
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Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most frequently occurring mycotoxins in wheat crops worldwide and poses a risk to human and animal health due to its wide range of adverse effects. Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3-glucoside) is a DON plant conjugate that is widely found in cereal products. As DON accumulation in the field seems unavoidable, it is important to investigate all of the conditions that affect its stability during food processing. One of the most consumed cereal product around the world is bread, however the published information about DON stability in bread shows a large variability of results because a huge amount of factors affect DON and its modified forms. So, the aim of this research was to study the fate of DON and its modified forms through the breadmaking process with the addition of xylanase and α-amylase at different fermentation temperatures. Moreover, different α-amylase and xylanase concentrations were added to the dough to be fermented. To quantify DON and its derived forms in the samples, liquid chromatography with double mass spectrophotometer was used. DON was reduced during fermentation and baking; however, the reduction at each step was related to the fermentation temperature. The presence of α-amylase and xylanase caused increases in DON during fermentation and during early baking. DON-3-glucoside was slightly reduced after fermentation and was widely increased (>80%) after baking. Deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) increased during the breadmaking process. Breadmaking process can reduce DON concentration, however xylanase and α-amylase presence cause increases of DON.

ACS Style

Arnau Vidal; Vicente Sanchis; Antonio J. Ramos; Sonia Marín. Effect of xylanase and α-amylase on DON and its conjugates during the breadmaking process. Food Research International 2017, 101, 139 -147.

AMA Style

Arnau Vidal, Vicente Sanchis, Antonio J. Ramos, Sonia Marín. Effect of xylanase and α-amylase on DON and its conjugates during the breadmaking process. Food Research International. 2017; 101 ():139-147.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arnau Vidal; Vicente Sanchis; Antonio J. Ramos; Sonia Marín. 2017. "Effect of xylanase and α-amylase on DON and its conjugates during the breadmaking process." Food Research International 101, no. : 139-147.

Journal article
Published: 24 October 2016 in World Mycotoxin Journal
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The presence of two main mycotoxins, ochratoxin A (OTA) and deoxynivalenol (DON), is widespread in cereal-based foodstuffs marketed in Europe. The objectives of this study were to develop and validate a multi-detection analytical methodology to simultaneously assess the urinary concentrations of OTA, DON and their metabolites, and to apply this methodology in a preliminary follow-up trial in Catalonia (Spain). Hence, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry method was developed to simultaneously assess the urinary levels of OTA, DON, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3-glucoside), deoxynivalenol-3-glucuronide (DON-3-glucuronide), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON) and de-epoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1). Urine mycotoxins levels and food dietary intake were prospectively monitored in a group of volunteers throughout a restriction period followed by a free-diet period. The proposed multi-detection methodology for urinary OTA and DON metabolites was validated, providing suitable recovery, linearity and precision. The results from the pilot trial showed that urinary OTA, DON and its metabolites were detected in most background samples, displaying moderate reductions after the restriction period and subsequently recovering the background levels. Despite the restriction period, some DON metabolites, such as 3-ADON or DOM-1, were still found in urine samples, placing alternative sources of DON exposure other than the ones considered in the study under suspicion. DON and DON-3-glucuronide were significantly associated with consumption of bread, pasta and pastries, while OTA was only associated with consumption of wine and breakfast cereals. The urinary levels of OTA were significantly correlated with plasmatic levels of OTA and ochratoxin α, supporting the results from the multidetection method in urine. The results also showed that the high exposure to DON could be held throughout the time by the same person, exceeding the tolerable daily intake systematically instead of eventually. The estimates of OTA exposure through urine are largely higher than those obtained with the dietary approach. The background levels found in urine revealed that the exposure to DON and OTA could be of concern for the Catalonian population, thus, further studies applying this biomonitoring methodology in a larger sample of Catalonian population are needed to accurately characterise the human health risks at population level.

ACS Style

Arnau Vidal; G. Cano-Sancho; S. Marín; A.J. Ramos; V. Sanchis. Multidetection of urinary ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol and its metabolites: pilot time-course study and risk assessment in Catalonia, Spain. World Mycotoxin Journal 2016, 9, 597 -612.

AMA Style

Arnau Vidal, G. Cano-Sancho, S. Marín, A.J. Ramos, V. Sanchis. Multidetection of urinary ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol and its metabolites: pilot time-course study and risk assessment in Catalonia, Spain. World Mycotoxin Journal. 2016; 9 (4):597-612.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arnau Vidal; G. Cano-Sancho; S. Marín; A.J. Ramos; V. Sanchis. 2016. "Multidetection of urinary ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol and its metabolites: pilot time-course study and risk assessment in Catalonia, Spain." World Mycotoxin Journal 9, no. 4: 597-612.