This paper describes the assessment of radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure from fifth generation (5G) new radio (NR) base stations in a commercial NR network in Bern, Switzerland. During the measurement campaign, four base station sites were investigated and the exposure induced by the NR massive multiple-input-multiple-output (MaMIMO) antennas was assessed at 22 positions, at distances from the base station between 30 m and 410 m. The NR base stations operated at 3.6 GHz and used codebook-based beamforming. While the actual field levels without inducing downlink traffic were very low (<0.05 V/m) due to a low traffic load and low antenna input powers of up to 8 W, setting up a maximum downlink traffic stream towards user equipment resulted in a time-averaged exposure level of up to 0.4 V/m, whereas the maximum extrapolated exposure level reached 0.6 V/m. Extrapolated to an antenna input power of 200 W, values of 4.3 V/m and 4.9 V/m, respectively, were obtained, which amount to 0.5–0.6% of the reference level recommended by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). In Bern, it was found that the impact of the NR network on the total environmental RF exposure was very limited; with maximum downlink, it contributed 2% on average. Finally, it was also concluded that extrapolation to the maximum exposure level can be done without prior knowledge of the radiation patterns, directly based on the measurement of the Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH) resource elements.

Within the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), many applications require high-quality positioning services. As opposed to traditional technologies, the two most recent positioning solutions: 1) ultra-wideband (UWB) and 2) (unmodulated) visible light positioning [(u)VLP] are well suited to economically supply centimeter-to-decimeter level accuracy. This manuscript benchmarks the 2-D positioning performance of an 8-anchor asymmetric double-sided two-way ranging (aSDS-TWR) UWB system and a 15-LED frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) received signal strength (RSS) (u)VLP system in terms of feasibility and accuracy. With extensive experimental data, collected at two heights in a 8 m by 6 m open zone equipped with a precise ground-truth system, it is demonstrated that both visible light positioning (VLP) and UWB already attain median and 90 ^th percentile positioning errors in the order of 5 and 10 cm in line-of-sight (LOS) conditions. An approximately 20-cm median accuracy can be obtained with uVLP, whose main benefit is it being infrastructureless and thus very inexpensive. The accuracy degradation effects of non-LOS (NLOS) on UWB/(u)VLP are highlighted with four scenarios, each consisting of a different configuration of metallic closets. For the considered setup, in 2-D and with minimal tilt of the object to be tracked, VLP outscores UWB in NLOS conditions, while for LOS scenarios similar results are obtained.

Of particular interest within fifth generation (5G) cellular networks are the typical levels of radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) emitted by ‘small cells’, low-power base stations, which are installed such that both workers and members of the general public can come in close proximity with them. In this study, RF-EMF measurements were performed near two 5G New Radio (NR) base stations, one with an Advanced Antenna System (AAS) capable of beamforming and the other a traditional microcell. At various positions near the base stations, with distances ranging between 0.5 m and 100 m, both the worst-case and time-averaged field levels under maximized downlink traffic load were assessed. Moreover, from these measurements, estimates were made of the typical exposures for various cases involving users and non-users. Comparison to the maximum permissible exposure limits issued by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) resulted in maximum exposure ratios of 0.15 (occupational, at 0.5 m) and 0.68 (general public, at 1.3 m). The exposure of non-users was potentially much lower, depending on the activity of other users serviced by the base station and its beamforming capabilities: 5 to 30 times lower in the case of an AAS base station compared to barely lower to 30 times lower for a traditional antenna.

To evaluate the implementation of 5G in Europe, we have systematically measured environmental, auto-induced downlink (DL) and uplink (UL) radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure in more than 800 microenvironments in ten European countries. Outdoor, indoor, and public transport microenvironments were measured in two cities and three villages in each country. Exposure was measured during three mobile-phone user scenarios: flight mode (non-user), inducing maximum DL traffic (max DL) or maximum UL traffic (max UL). The mobile phone was carried in a backpack, placed 30 cm from an ExpoM-RF 4 that continuously measured 35 frequency bands (87.5 MHz-6 GHz). For each user scenario, mean exposure levels were calculated. In the non-user scenario, mean exposure levels ranged from 0.33 to 1.72 mW/m² per country and were lower in Switzerland, Belgium and Italy. RF-EMF levels were, on average, 80 % lower in villages compared to cities, with DL bands contributing the most in this scenario. During max DL, exposure increased mainly due to the 5G band at 3.5 GHz (mean exposure per country 2.61-11.12 mW/m²). However, the time-division nature of this band prevents distinguishing between DL and UL signals with the ExpoM-RF4. Exposure levels were the highest during max UL, particularly in the Netherlands, Italy and Belgium, with 50 % of the mean levels per country above 16 mW/m². Exposure was, on average, 35 % higher in villages compared to cities. Environmental exposure levels were below international guideline values. Countries with precautionary limits had lower environmental exposure levels but higher auto-induced uplink exposure during data upload.

This paper experimentally investigates passive human visible light sensing (VLS). A passive VLS system is tested consisting of one light emitting diode (LED) and one photodiode-based receiver, both ceiling-mounted. There is no line of sight between the LED and the receiver, so only reflected light can be considered. The influence of a human is investigated based on the received signal strength (RSS) values of the reflections of ambient light at the photodiode. Depending on the situation, this influence can reach up to $\pm 50\%$ . The experimental results show the influence of three various clothing colors, four different walking directions and four different layouts. Based on the obtained results, a human pass-by detection system is proposed and tested. The system achieves a detection rate of 100% in a controlled environment for 21 experiments. For a realistic corridor experiment, the system keeps its detection rate of 100% for 19 experiments.

New measurement methods and equipment for correct 5G New Radio (NR) electromagnetic field (EMF) in-situ exposure assessment of instantaneous time-averaged exposure (E_avg) and maximum extrapolated field exposure (E_max) are proposed. The different options are investigated with in-situ measurements around 5G NR base stations (FR1) in different countries. The maximum electric field values satisfy the ICNIRP 2020 limit (maximum 7.7%). The difference between E_max and E_avg is <3 dB for the different measurement equipment at multiple sites in case there is only self-generated traffic. However, in a more realistic scenario, E_avg cannot be used to assess the exposure correctly due to influence of other users as the spatial distribution of user equipment (UE) influences E_avg, while E_max is not affected. However, when multiple UEs are collocated, there is no influence of the number of UEs. A broadband measurement can give a first impression of the RF-EMF exposure up to 700 m, but is not enough to assess the 5G-NR exposure.