Anthropogenic disturbances, such as illegal harvesting and livestock browsing, often affect natural forests. However, the resulting tree species diversity, composition, and population structure have rarely been quantified. We assessed tree species diversity and importance value indices and, in particular, Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. population structure, across 100 sample plots of 25 m × 40 m in disturbed and non-disturbed sites at the Dinder Biosphere Reserve, Sudan, from April 2019 to April 2020. We found that the tree species diversity in non-disturbed sites was more than double that of disturbed sites (p < 0.001, T = 32.6), and seedlings and saplings comprised more than 72% of the entire tree population (F_2,48 = 116.4, p = 0.034; F_2,48 = 163.2, p = 0.021, respectively). The tree density of B. aegyptiaca in the disturbed site was less than half that of the non-disturbed site (p = 0.018, T = 2.6). Balanites aegyptiaca was seven times more aggregated in disturbed sites compared to more regularly spaced trees in non-disturbed sites (T = 39.3 and p < 0.001). The poor B. aegyptiaca population status of the disturbed site shows that the conservation of this vulnerable species is essential for a sustainable management and utilization scheme.

While the impact of livestock grazing has been frequently assessed for grasses, little is known about how livestock affects tree seedlings and saplings. We explored the effects of goat, cattle and camel browsing on the survival of Balanites aegyptiaca seedlings and saplings, a broadleaved evergreen tree species indigenous to Sudan, in Dinder Biosphere Reserve-Sudan (DBR). We used a stratified sampling design with four sites: GOA (mainly browsed by goats), CAT and CAM being mainly browsed by cattle and camels, respectively, while CON was a control area without any livestock browsing. We tested the survival, mortality and recovery of seedlings and saplings across different sites. Our results revealed that mortalities of seedlings in GOA were almost four times higher than that of CAM and CON and twice that of CAT (F_3,196 = 100.39, P < .001). Further, sapling mortality was three times higher in GOA than that observed in CAT and CON (F_3,196 = 73.4, P < .001). We found that seedlings recover better than saplings, and, unexpectedly, goat browsing severely affected the natural regeneration of B. aegyptiaca in DBR compared to other livestock species. Our study findings contribute to sustainable forest management and show that particularly goat browsing needs to be suppressed for conservation of vulnerable tree species.

Understanding seed population dynamics is essential for recognizing shifts in species composition during ecosystem restoration. Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. is a tropical fast‐growing tree species, widely cultivated in community forests and plantations, and is well adapted to a low fertility soil. This study aimed at estimating seed production, dispersal, and fate of the seed population (disappearance and germination at varying distance from the mother tree) and related early seedlings growth performance to microclimate variables. The findings revealed that seed production of A. chinensis varied significantly ( p < 0.001) among individual trees and showed a positive correlation between number of branches, inflorescences, crown height, and crown diameter with seed production. However, seed dispersal exhibited a strong negative correlation with dispersal distance from the mother tree ( r = −92) with significant differences among individual trees ( p < 0.05). We found that most seeds fell directly beneath the mother tree and seed disappearance declined as distance from the mother tree increased. Seedling height showed strong positive correlations with soil temperature, moisture, and humidity, and these variables also exhibited positive correlations with seedling diameter. We found that seedling growth (height and diameter) increments significantly varied between months ( p < 0.05). The findings of this study could help in restoration, management and conservation of A. chinensis in tropical areas. Importantly, this research represents the first comprehensive study on seed production dynamics and microclimate seedling interaction of A. chinensis in Northeast India, thereby filling a critical knowledge gap. Future research should focus on understanding the alternative seed production strategies in the species and their relation to biotic and abiotic factors.