While many studies have used Earth observations to quantify urbanization in Africa, there is still a lack of empirical evidence on the role of secondary cities in the fastest urbanizing region in the world. Moreover, the diversity of urbanization processes in Africa, which can be more or less compact in terms of land consumption, remains insufficiently acknowledged and under-documented. This empirical study employed mixed methods to address these research gaps. We analyzed and compared the spatiotemporal dynamics of two secondary African cities, Ho (Ghana) and Kpalimé (Togo), between 1985 and 2020. We compared their spatial growth (the rate of urbanization of land) with their respective population growth rates using Landsat TM and ETM+ imagery, and population data. To understand the factors behind eventual differences between the spatial patterns of urbanization of the two cities, our quantitative analysis based on remote sensing was confronted with qualitative data from individual interviews with key stakeholders. Our results showed two distinct urbanization trajectories between 1985 and 2010, with Ho following a more compact pattern than Kpalimé. Since 2010, however, both cities have tended towards urban sprawl, with an urbanization rate greater than the population growth rate. According to the interviews, the main determinants of urban sprawl in these two secondary cities were the absence of housing policies for low-income groups, the absence or inefficacy of urban master plans, the preponderance of single-family housing, and land speculation.

Participatory democracy is a promising solution to the shortcomings of the traditional approach to urban planning. However, in Ho (Ghana) and Kpalimé (Togo), it raises questions about the effective involvement of citizens in decision-making processes. This study examines the mechanisms put in place to encourage their participation. To explore this issue, we used a mixed-methods approach that included interviews with municipal officials and other urban actors, surveys of residents, and direct observation. The Arnstein approach was used as a framework to shed light on the degree of control and influence that citizens actually exercise in planning and decision-making processes. This approach allows us to determine whether citizens are merely informed (levels 3–4) or actively involved in decision making (levels 6–8). This allows us to highlight the shortcomings of participatory mechanisms in both cities. Colonial legacies and political approaches influence how authorities manage participation, while traditions and cultural norms shape citizens’ expectations and behaviors. In Ho, a culture of collaboration and transparency favors participatory methods, while in Kpalimé, respect for hierarchies and a more centralized approach limit forms of direct engagement. These differences highlight the importance of taking these dimensions into account to better understand and improve local governance practices in these two contexts.

From a sustainability perspective, the production of the city is a co-construction aimed at providing opportunities for residents to access different urban centres. In the absence of co-design of electricity network extension projects, Grand Lomé and Greater Accra face the challenge of social acceptance due to the diversity of perceptions. How do the residents of Accra and Lomé experience the diversity of perceptions of power grid extension projects? To answer this question, this paper uses a mixed and comparative approach to analyse the impact of this diversity of perception on access to electricity in Greater Accra and Grand Lomé, based on spatial equity. The results show that structural non-recognition and residents’ dissatisfaction lead to social contempt. When structural non-recognition and dissatisfaction accumulate, socio-spatial injustice occurs.

In Greater Nokoué (Benin) and Greater Lomé (Togo), there is a lack of access to formal and affordable housing. The objective of this paper is to examine the daily resilience strategies developed by tenants in Greater Nokoué and Greater Lomé to gain access to housing. It is based on a mixed methodological approach combining tenant surveys (159 in Greater Nokoué and 251 in Greater Lomé) and semi-structured interviews (28 in Greater Nokoué and 17 in Greater Lomé). The results reveal various coping mechanisms used to secure housing, maintain livelihoods, and foster a sense of belonging in environments marked by exclusion and informality. The field results also show that, in Greater Nokoué, strategies are based on occupying precarious housing characterized by poor hygiene and sanitation. In Greater Lomé, in addition to occupying makeshift housing, cohabitation is marked by tense relations and neighborhood conflicts. These findings show that, while these strategies allow for short-term adaptation, they often reproduce spatial inequalities and expose these populations to social and economic instability. Given this imperative, it is urgent to take into account these difficulties in accessing housing when promoting resilient and accessible cities for all, an important criterion in the definition of a sustainable city.