DC standalone microgrids are emerging as an effective solution for integrating renewable energy sources (RESs) and accommodating the widespread use of DC loads and energy storage systems (ESSs). However, the intermittent nature of RESs and the challenges posed by load requirements, such as pulsed power loads (PPLs), threaten MG stability and resiliency. To address these challenges, this paper introduces a Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS) control framework, integrating a battery energy storage system (BESS) and an Ultracapacitor (UC) designed to tackle high and low-frequency components in power demand for enhancing MG stability in diverse practical operational conditions. Key innovations include the first-time experimental validation of the HESS control scheme under variable PPL. A novel Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control (LADRC)-based voltage control scheme will be introduced. Simulation and experimental validation are conducted to test the proposed control scheme, showcasing superior performance in DC bus voltage regulation compared to traditional BESS-only systems under constant PPL. Moreover, under the most severe loading condition, the variable PPL, the proposed LADRC-based HESS control has demonstrated robust and resilient performance, outperforming both PI-based HESS control and BESS-only. This study advances resilient and reliable power systems by addressing the intricate challenges posed by constant and variable PPL in DC standalone microgrids, paving the way for sustainable energy solutions.

The integration of communication infrastructures into traditional power systems, transforming them into cyber-physical power systems (CPPS), accentuates the significance of communication in influencing system performance and sustainability. This paper presents a versatile, innovative cyber-physical co-simulation framework that integrates the physical power system and communication networks, uniting OPAL-RT, a network simulator (ns3), and Docker containers into a sophisticated platform, facilitating intensive studies into CPPS dynamics. The proposed experimental study provides an innovative way to assess the frequency control response of a cyber-physical inverter-based microgrid (MG), addressing the MG sustainability challenges. We consider diverse real-world scenarios, focusing on communication delays and distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks within the communication channels. We propose a precise ns3-based communication model that bridges the MG’s primary and secondary control layers, an aspect often overlooked in previous studies; this is a noteworthy contribution to elucidating the adverse impacts of communication latency on MG frequency performance. The experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the centralized secondary controller in eliminating the frequency deviations. Furthermore, the findings offer insights into stable and unstable regions, revealing how the communication delay value affects the frequency stability under different operating conditions. In addition, the developed real-time DDoS attacks model within the proposed communication surface unveils crucial insights into the MG’s resilience to cyber threats. This work’s revelations offer a foundational awareness of MG vulnerabilities, paving the way for designing robust and resilient communication networks and control strategies within the cyber-physical inverter-based microgrids.

Developing multi-microgrid (MMG) systems provides a new paradigm for power distribution systems with a higher degree of resilience, flexibility, and sustainability. The inclusion of communication networks as part of MMG is critical for coordinating distributed energy resources (DERs) in real time and deploying energy management systems (EMS) efficiently. However, the communication quality of service (QoS) parameters such as latency, jitter, packet loss, and throughput play an essential role in MMG control and stability, especially in highly dynamic and high-traffic situations. This paper presents a focused review of MMG systems from a cyber-physical viewpoint, particularly concerning the challenges and implications of communication network performance of energy management. The literature on MMG systems includes control strategies, models of communication infrastructure, cybersecurity challenges, and co-simulation platforms. We have identified research gaps, including, but not limited to, the need for scalable, real-time cyber-physical systems; limited research examining communication QoS under realistic conditions/traffic; and integrated cybersecurity strategies for MMGs. We suggest future research opportunities considering these research gaps to enhance the resiliency, adaptability, and sustainability of modern cyber-physical MMGs.

The control of energy storage systems (ESSs) within autonomous microgrids (MGs) is critical for ensuring stable and efficient operation, especially when incorporating renewable energy resources (RESs) such as photovoltaic (PV) systems. This paper addresses managing a standalone DC microgrid that combines PV generation and a battery energy storage system (BESS). We propose a hybrid control strategy that combines a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) with Proportional-Integral (PI) controllers to improve the performance of the bidirectional converter that connects the BESS to the microgrid. The RNN processes the voltage error and derivative into a reference current, which a PI controller refines to determine the best duty cycle for the converter’s switches. This hybrid control scheme provides superior adaptability and performance in various load conditions, including pulsed power load (PPL) demands. Simulation results show that the proposed control method exceeds traditional PI-PI control algorithms, particularly in improving the transient stability of the DC bus voltage and optimizing BESS performance. We conducted extensive hardware experiments to verify the robustness and effectiveness of the developed control algorithm. The experimental results confirmed the superior performance of the hybrid RNN-PI control scheme, demonstrating its ability to maintain system stability and efficiency across a wide range of real-world scenarios. This experimental validation reflects the reliability and effectiveness of the proposed control strategy in improving microgrid operations.

Despite the increasing prevalence of DC microgrids, they encounter instability issues due to imbalances in supply and demand, especially when dealing with specific loads such as pulse load or variable pulse load. The system faces severe changes which reduce the effectiveness of typical PV-Battery control systems. The solution to this problem frequently involves the use of energy storage devices such as supercapacitors SCs. When exposed to transients, batteries risk having their lifespans shortened and are challenged in keeping the stability of DC bus voltage and reducing overall transients. In order to increase the stability of DC microgrids and thereby increase their reliability and resilience, it is possible to combine the advantages of batteries and supercapacitors. Integrating both batteries and supercapacitors effectively enables DC microgrids to manage both steady-state and transient conditions. The main goal of this research paper is to investigate how the hybrid energy storage system (HESS) improves the stability of DC microgrids. According to sets of results, the proposed scheme has successfully reduced DC bus voltage variations regardless of variations in solar irradiance and the different pulsed load profiles.