Papaya is one of the most economic and valuable fruits in tropical countries. However, the fruit processing industries generate a high volume of unripe papaya waste and by-products. To reduce this waste, unripe papaya powder (UPP) was manufactured and incorporated into pancake formulation. The results showed that a particle size of UPP was 140.8 ± 2.1 µm, which contained polyphenolic compounds, dietary fiber and demonstrated ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). Compared with wheat flour, UPP had higher values of water absorption index, water solubility index and swelling index and lower level of amylose. In the cholesterol-reducing effect, UPP decreased the formation of cholesterol micellization and bound bile acids. Interestingly, incorporation of 5–20% UPP into pancakes could decrease the glucose release with a concomitant increase in the percentage of undigestible starch. The hardness and chewiness of pancake was increased with a higher amount of UPP (10–20%). The results suggest that UPP from fruit processing waste can be regarded as a promising functional ingredient to incorporate with pancakes.

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.), a potential legume as an economical source of protein, is commonly cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Therefore, pigeon pea may be potentially used as a substitute to improve the nutritional profile of foods. In the present study, the effect of substitution of whole wheat flour (WWF) with 20% and 40% pigeon pea flour (PPF) on the nutritional properties, color profiles, and starch and protein digestibility of chapati was investigated. The results showed that PPF had higher protein content but less carbohydrate than WWF. The protein content of chapati substituted with 20% and 40% PPF increased by 1.18 and 1.34 times, respectively, compared to WWF chapati, along with a marked decrease in carbohydrate content. Analyses further revealed an increase in the lightness and yellowness and a decrease in the redness of the chapati. Furthermore, glucose release from chapati with 20% and 40% PPF under simulated digestion was attenuated, corresponding to decreased hydrolysis and a predicted glycemic index. In the 40% PPF chapati, a significant reduction in slowly digestible starch (SDS) with increased resistant starch (RS) proportions was achieved without altering the effect on rapidly digestible starch (RDS). In addition, the level of amino-group residues was markedly elevated in 20% and 40% PPF substituted chapati compared to WWF chapati. These findings suggest that PPF can serve as a promising plant-based alternative ingredient to improve the nutrient value of chapati by reducing starch and increasing protein digestibility.

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) leaves are an underutilized by-product of an expanding oilseed crop, yet their use as a food ingredient remains limited. This study evaluated sacha inchi tea leaf powder (STLP) as a partial replacement for wheat flour in cookies at 0%, 2.5%, 5%, and 10% (w/w), and examined the physicochemical properties, antioxidant capacity, in vitro starch digestibility, and sensory acceptability of the cookies. Substitution with STLP significantly increased the protein, dietary fiber, and ash contents of the cookies (p ≤ 0.05). Total phenolic content and ferric-reducing antioxidant power also increased with the substitution level, particularly at 5% and 10% STLP (p ≤ 0.05). In the simulated digestion model, STLP-substituted cookies showed lower glucose release, glucose area under the curve, hydrolysis index, and predicted glycemic index than the control (p ≤ 0.05), indicating reduced starch hydrolysis in vitro. Physical properties were largely maintained at low to moderate substitution levels, whereas 10% STLP increased spread ratio and hardness, and reduced baking loss. Sensory evaluation showed that STLP substitution lowered appearance, color, smell, flavor, and overall acceptability scores compared with the control, while texture scores were not significantly affected. These findings suggest that STLP may be used as a potential ingredient to improve protein, fiber and ash contents, enhance antioxidant properties of cookies, and reduce in vitro starch hydrolysis. Although further formulation optimization is needed to balance these effects with sensory acceptability, STLP is a promising functional ingredient for bakery products and a means of valorizing an underutilized agricultural material.

Background: Epidemiological evidence suggests that green leafy vegetables (GLV) may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, the relationship remains incompletely understood due to inconsistencies between findings from observational studies and randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Therefore, a comprehensive synthesis of evidence across study designs is warranted. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the association between GLV consumption and CVD risk, as well as related cardiovascular risk factors, including blood pressure (BP) and endothelial function, based on evidence from observational studies and RCTs. Methods: Systematic searches of PubMed, EMBASE, APA PsycInfo, and Ovid databases were conducted through 30 October 2024. Risk of bias was assessed using the ROBINS-E tool for observational studies and the RoB 2 tool for RCTs. Pooled relative risks (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for observational studies, whereas mean differences (MDs) were used for RCT outcomes. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed, and heterogeneity was evaluated using Cochran’s Q and I² statistics. Results: Higher GLV consumption was significantly associated with a reduced risk of CVD in observational studies (RR: 0.89; 95% CI: 0.82–0.97; p < 0.01; I² = 80%; Q = 55.88) and lower CVD mortality (RR: 0.79; 95% CI: 0.62–0.97; p < 0.01; I² = 80%; Q = 4.93). However, pooled analysis of seven RCTs showed no significant improvement in vascular function following GLV intake (MD: −0.37; 95% CI: −1.90 to 1.16; p = 0.64; I² = 88%; Q = 18.59). No significant associations were observed between GLV consumption and hypertension risk in observational studies, nor were significant effects found on systolic or diastolic BP in RCTs. Conclusions: Higher GLV consumption may be associated with a lower risk of CVD in observational studies. However, evidence from RCTs remains limited and inconclusive. Further well-designed clinical trials are needed to confirm these associations, establish dose–response relationships, and elucidate the mechanisms underlying the cardioprotective effects of GLVs to support evidence-based dietary recommendations.