Dragon fruit (Hylocereus spp.), an increasingly popular tropical fruit, has attracted global interest because of its distinct appearance, nutritional value, and health advantages. As cultivation has spread from its native Central and South American regions to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, there is an increasing demand for sustainable production approaches to address environmental, economic, and social issues. This study provides current knowledge on three different types of dragon fruits—H. megalanthus, H. undatus, and H. costaricencis—and their biology, agronomic requirements, and worldwide production trends, highlighting the critical need for management solutions. Conventional practices, which frequently rely on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, are compared with new sustainable approaches such as organic amendments, high tunnel systems, and agroforestry. This review examines regional challenges like climate variability, pest and disease issues, and pollination limits and explores innovative solutions to boost production and resilience. Socioeconomic factors, including market trends, farmer education, and policy frameworks, are recognized as key influences on the adoption of sustainable practices. This article highlights important research gaps, including the need for genetic improvement, digital agriculture tools, and strong certification mechanisms. This review integrates diverse views and provides actionable ideas for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners seeking to increase productivity, environmental stewardship, and long-term sustainability in dragon fruit agriculture.

Dragon fruit or pitaya (Hylocereus sp.) is an exotic tropical plant gaining popularity in the United States as it is a nutrient-rich fruit with mildly sweet flavor and a good source of fiber. Although high tunnels are being used to produce specialized crops, little is known about how pitaya growth, physiology and nutrient uptake change throughout the production period. This study aims to evaluate the impact of high tunnels and varying rates of vermicompost on three varieties of pitaya, White Pitaya (WP), Yellow Pitaya (YP), and Red Pitaya (RP), to assess the soil and plant nutrient dynamics, spectral reflectance changes and plant growth. Plants were assessed at 120 and 365 DAP (Days After Plantation). YP thrived in a high tunnel compared to an open environment in terms of survival before 120 DAP, with no diseased incidence and higher nutrient retention. The nutrient accumulation in the RP, WP, and YP shoot samples 120 DAP were ranked in the following order, K > N > Ca > Mg > P > Fe > Zn > B > Mn, while 365 DAP, they were ranked as K > Ca > N > Mg > P > S > Fe > Zn > B > Mn. The nutrient accumulation in the RP, WP, and YP, soil samples 120 and 365 DAP were ranked in the following order: N > Ca > Mg > P > K > Na > Zn. Soil nutrients showed a higher concentration of Na and K grown inside the high tunnels in all three pitaya species due to the increased concentration of soluble salts. Spectral reflectance analysis showed that RP and WP had higher reflectance in the visible and NIR region compared to YP due to their higher plant biomass and canopy cover. This study emphasizes the importance of environmental conditions, nutrition strategies, and plant physiology in the different pitaya plant species. The results suggest that high tunnels with appropriate vermicompost can enhance pitaya growth and development.

Dragon fruit (Hylocereus spp.) is an emerging crop in the tropics and subtropics, but its production is increasingly threatened by diseases that reduce yield and profitability. Early diagnosis of these diseases is crucial for timely intervention, yet visual symptoms often appear only after significant infection has occurred. The study aims to evaluate how optical spectral reflectance can detect dragon fruit diseases and identify the most responsive spectral regions. In this study, six major dragon fruit stem diseases: Neoscytalidium stem canker, stem sunburn, anthracnose, Botryosphaeria stem canker, Bipolaris stem rot, and bacterial soft rot were characterized by the goal of identifying unique spectral signatures for early detection and differentiation of each disease. Seventy-two potted dragon fruit plants of three distinct species were grown under four organic vermicompost treatments (0, 5, 10, 20 tons/acre) in both open-field and high-tunnel conditions together, in a randomized complete block design. A handheld spectroradiometer (350–2500 nm) was used to collect reflectance from the diseased and healthy cladodes (stem segment). Various spectral vegetative indices were computed to identify disease-specific features. The results revealed distinct spectral features for each disease. Infected cladodes consistently exhibited higher reflectance especially in the visible region (400–700 nm) and the near-infrared region (900–2500 nm) of the spectrum than healthy cladodes. The Normalized Difference Vegetative Index (NDVI), Green Normalized Difference Vegetative Index (GNDVI), and Spectral Ratio (SR) spectral indices were significantly higher in healthy plants than in diseased ones, reflecting higher chlorophyll concentration and plant biomass. Conversely, the 1110/810 ratio was lower in healthy plants than in diseased plants, suggesting a more compact internal plant structure. Statistical analysis revealed highly significant differences (p < 0.00001) between healthy and diseased spectra in the Red, Green and NIR regions. Linear Discriminant Analysis(LDA) achieved the highest classification accuracy (OA = 0.642, κ = 0.488), though performance was limited for minority classes. These findings demonstrate that targeted spectral sensing can identify dragon fruit diseases before obvious symptoms emerge. By pinpointing disease-specific spectral indices, our study paves the way for early-warning tools such as targeted multispectral sensors or drone-based imaging that would enable growers to intervene sooner and limit losses. These results highlight the potential for development of UAV-based or portable spectral sensors for large-scale, near real-time disease monitoring in dragon fruit production.

Phosphorus (P) is essential for crop production, yet its use still follows a largely linear pathway: phosphate rock is mined, applied to agricultural land, transferred through food and waste systems, and often lost to rivers, lakes, and coastal waters. This review examines how P supply vulnerability, agricultural surpluses and deficits, legacy soil P, eutrophication, climate-sensitive transport, and recovery technologies are connected across food and water systems. A structured narrative review was conducted using Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, and relevant institutional sources. The searches focused on phosphorus fertilizer, legacy P, eutrophication, runoff, wastewater recovery, circular economy, and governance. English-language peer-reviewed studies and high-authority reports, mainly published between 1995 and 2026, were screened for relevance, methodological clarity, and quantitative evidence. A total of 191 records were identified, 115 full texts were assessed, and 101 sources were included. Evidence was grouped into four areas: mineral supply and trade, soil and aquatic P accumulation, recovery from waste streams, and policy. The review shows that concentrated reserves can increase supply risk, but do not alone indicate imminent scarcity. Costs, ore quality, trade, demand, recycling, and technological change also influence P security. Legacy P may support crop uptake while continuing to impair water quality. Recovery technologies such as struvite production and sludge-ash processing offer useful pathways, but their adoption depends on economics, contaminants, regulation, and logistics. Effective P stewardship therefore requires region-specific strategies that reduce losses, improve access and efficiency, manage legacy P, and support practical recovery.