The development of therapeutics and theranostic nanodrug delivery systems have posed a challenging task for the current researchers due to the requirement of having various nanocarriers and active agents for better therapy, imaging, and controlled release of drugs efficiently in one platform. The conventional liver cancer chemotherapy has many negative effects such as multiple drug resistance (MDR), high clearance rate, severe side effects, unwanted drug distribution to the specific site of liver cancer and low concentration of drug that finally reaches liver cancer cells. Therefore, it is necessary to develop novel strategies and novel nanocarriers that will carry the drug molecules specific to the affected cancerous hepatocytes in an adequate amount and duration within the therapeutic window. Therapeutics and theranostic systems have advantages over conventional chemotherapy due to the high efficacy of drug loading or drug encapsulation efficiency, high cellular uptake, high drug release, and minimum side effects. These nanocarriers possess high drug accumulation in the tumor area while minimizing toxic effects on healthy tissues. This review focuses on the current research on nanocarrier-based therapeutics and theranostic drug delivery systems excluding the negative consequences of nanotechnology in the field of drug delivery systems. However, clinical developments of theranostics nanocarriers for liver cancer are considered outside of the scope of this article. This review discusses only the recent developments of nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems for liver cancer therapy and diagnosis. The negative consequences of individual nanocarrier in the drug delivery system will also not be covered in this review.

The formation of two nanodelivery systems, Sorafenib (SF)-loaded chitosan (SF-CS) and their folate-coated (SF-CS-FA) nanoparticles (NPs), were developed to enhance SF drug delivery on human Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HepG2) and Colorectal Adenocarcinoma (HT29) cell lines. The ionic gelation method was adopted to synthesize the NPs. The characterizations were performed by DLS, FESEM, TEM, XRD, TGA, FTIR, and UV-visible spectroscopy. It was found that 83.7 ± 2.4% and 87.9 ± 1.1% of encapsulation efficiency; 18.2 ± 1.3% and 19.9 ± 1.4% of loading content; 76.3 ± 13.7 nm and 81.6 ± 12.9 nm of hydrodynamic size; 60–80 nm and 70–100 nm of TEM; and FESEM sizes of near-spherical shape were observed, respectively, for SF-CS and SF-CS-FA nanoparticles. The SF showed excellent release from the nanoparticles under pH 4.8 PBS solution, indicating a good delivery system for tumor cells. The cytotoxicity study revealed their better anticancer action towards HepG2 and HT29 cell lines compared to the free sorafenib. Moreover, both NPs systems showed negligible toxicity to normal Human Dermal Fibroblast adult cells (HDFa). This is towards an enhanced anticancer drug delivery system with sustained-release properties for better cancer management.

Tuberculosis (TB), derived from bacterium named Mycobacterium tuberculosis, has become one of the worst infectious and contagious illnesses in the world after HIV/AIDS. Long-term therapy, a high pill burden, lack of compliance, and strict management regimens are disadvantages which resulted in the extensively drug-resistant (XDR) along with multidrug-resistant (MDR) in the treatment of TB. One of the main thrust areas for the current scenario is the development of innovative intervention tools for early diagnosis and therapeutics towards Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). This review discusses various nanotherapeutic agents that have been developed for MTB diagnostics, anti-TB drugs and vaccine. Undoubtedly, the concept of employing nanoparticles (NPs) has strong potential in this therapy and offers impressive outcomes to conquer the disease. Nanocarriers with different types were designed for drug delivery applications via various administration methods. Controlling and maintaining the drug release might be an example of the benefits of utilizing a drug-loaded NP in TB therapy over conventional drug therapy. Furthermore, the drug-encapsulated NP is able to lessen dosage regimen and can resolve the problems of insufficient compliance. Over the past decade, NPs were developed in both diagnostic and therapeutic methods, while on the other hand, the therapeutic system has increased. These “theranostic” NPs were designed for nuclear imaging, optical imaging, ultrasound, imaging with magnetic resonance and the computed tomography, which includes both single-photon computed tomography and positron emission tomography. More specifically, the current manuscript focuses on the status of therapeutic and diagnostic approaches in the treatment of TB.

Tuberculosis (TB) stands as an enduring and formidable global health challenge, necessitating innovative methodologies to optimize therapeutic outcomes. Within this context, nanotechnology emerges as a promising modality to augment TB therapy by enabling targeted drug delivery of anti-TB agents to infect cells, thereby maximizing therapeutic efficacy while mitigating adverse effects. This study focalizes on the synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles (CSNP) as a nanocarrier for the concurrent delivery of Pyrazinamide (PYR), a pivotal antibiotic in the first-line treatment of TB. The primary objective is to overcome challenges related to the limited solubility and bioavailability of these drugs, which hinder their effectiveness and pose toxicity risks. The encapsulation of PYR within CS proves advantageous, enhancing solubility, bioavailability, and targeted drug delivery. The resulting nanocarrier, denoted as CS-PYR, is prepared through ionic gelation, involving cross-linking chitosan-loaded anti-TB carriers with tripolyphosphate to achieve nanoscale dimensions. Various analytical techniques, including XRD, FTIR, TGA, TEM, FESEM, DLS, UV-vis spectroscopy, antibacterial assays, and cytotoxic MTT assays, are utilized for a comprehensive investigation. The spherical morphology of PYR-CSNP, with an average diameter of 60 to 100 nm, is confirmed by FESEM, TEM, and DLS analyses. FTIR and XRD analyses validate the successful fabrication and multifunctional properties of PYR incorporated into the CSNP matrix. The drug-loaded CSNP exhibits improved thermal stability, displaying decomposition between 200-400°C, indicating higher temperature resistance and greater weight loss compared to the CSNP carrier due to PYR inclusion. Drug release studies show sustained release behaviour, with 90-99% release in an acidic (pH 4.8) buffer solution over seven days, following a pseudo-second-order model. Moreover, the CS-PYR nanocarrier demonstrates superior efficacy against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, attributed to drug intercalation resulting in larger inhibition zones. Cytotoxicity assessments for CS-PYR indicate 80% cell viability in MRC5 cells, underscoring the nanocarrier's potential as a safe and effective TB treatment delivery system without adversely affecting normal cells. These findings position CS-PYR as a promising nanodelivery system for TB therapy, offering enhanced precision in drug delivery and safety.