To evaluate the implementation of 5G in Europe, we have systematically measured environmental, auto-induced downlink (DL) and uplink (UL) radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure in more than 800 microenvironments in ten European countries. Outdoor, indoor, and public transport microenvironments were measured in two cities and three villages in each country. Exposure was measured during three mobile-phone user scenarios: flight mode (non-user), inducing maximum DL traffic (max DL) or maximum UL traffic (max UL). The mobile phone was carried in a backpack, placed 30 cm from an ExpoM-RF 4 that continuously measured 35 frequency bands (87.5 MHz-6 GHz). For each user scenario, mean exposure levels were calculated. In the non-user scenario, mean exposure levels ranged from 0.33 to 1.72 mW/m² per country and were lower in Switzerland, Belgium and Italy. RF-EMF levels were, on average, 80 % lower in villages compared to cities, with DL bands contributing the most in this scenario. During max DL, exposure increased mainly due to the 5G band at 3.5 GHz (mean exposure per country 2.61-11.12 mW/m²). However, the time-division nature of this band prevents distinguishing between DL and UL signals with the ExpoM-RF4. Exposure levels were the highest during max UL, particularly in the Netherlands, Italy and Belgium, with 50 % of the mean levels per country above 16 mW/m². Exposure was, on average, 35 % higher in villages compared to cities. Environmental exposure levels were below international guideline values. Countries with precautionary limits had lower environmental exposure levels but higher auto-induced uplink exposure during data upload.

The recent deployment of 5G networks is bringing benefits to the population but it is also raising public concern about human RF-EMF exposure levels. This is particularly relevant considering the next 5G mobile devices, which are placed in close proximity to the subjects. Therefore, the aim of the following paper is focused on expanding the knowledge of the exposure levels in 5G exposure scenarios, specifically for mobile applications, using computational methods. The mobile antenna was designed considering the 5G technology innovations (i.e., mm-wave spectrum, beamforming capability, high gain and wide coverage), resulting in a phased-array antenna with eight elements at the working frequency of 27 GHz. To assess the exposure levels, different types of skin models with different grades of details and layers were considered. Furthermore, not only was the presence of a mobile phone user simulated, but also that of a person in their proximity, who could be hit by the main beam of the phased-array antenna. All the simulations were conducted in Sim4Life platform, where the exposure levels were assessed in terms of absorbed power density averaged over 4 cm² and 1 cm², following the ICNIRP guidelines. The results highlighted that the use of the homogeneous skin model led to the absorbed power density peaks being greatly underestimated, with respect to those obtained in multilayer skin models. Furthermore, interestingly, we found that the exposure levels obtained for the person passing nearby were slightly higher than those experienced by the mobile phone user himself. Finally, using the allowed input power for real mobile applications, all the values remained below the limits indicated by the ICNIRP guidelines.

(1) Background: Cooperative Intelligent Transportation Systems (C-ITS) will soon operate using 5G New-Radio (NR) wireless communication, overcoming the limitations of the current V2X (Vehicle-to-Everything) wireless communication technologies and increasing road-safety and driving efficiency. These innovations will also change the RF exposure levels of pedestrians and road-users in general. These people, in fact, will be exposed to additional RF sources coming from nearby cars and from the infrastructure. Therefore, an exposure assessment of people in the proximity of a connected car is necessary and urgent. (2) Methods: Two array antennas for 5G-V2X communication at 3.5 GHz were modelled and mounted on a realistic 3D car model for evaluating the exposure levels of a human model representing people on the road near the car. Computational simulations were conducted using the FDTD solver implemented in the Sim4Life platform; different positions and orientations between the car and the human model were assessed. The analyzed quantities were the Specific Absorption Rate on the whole body (SAR_wb), averaged over 10 g (SAR_10g) in specific tissues, as indicated in the ICNIRP guidelines. (3) Results: the data showed that the highest exposure levels were obtained mostly in the head area of the human model, with the highest peak obtained in the configuration where the main beam of the 5G-V2X antennas was more direct towards the human model. Moreover, in all configurations, the dose absorbed by a pedestrian was well below the ICNIRP guidelines to avoid harmful effects. (4) Conclusions: This work is the first study on human exposure assessment in a 5G-V2X scenario, and it expands the knowledge about the exposure levels for the forthcoming use of 5G in connected vehicles.

Future vehicles will be increasingly connected to enable new applications and improve safety, traffic efficiency and comfort, through the use of several wireless access technologies, ranging from vehicle-to-everything (V2X) connectivity to automotive radar sensing and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies for intra-car wireless sensor networks. These technologies span the radiofrequency (RF) range, from a few hundred MHz as in intra-car network of sensors to hundreds of GHz as in automotive radars used for in-vehicle occupant detection and advanced driver assistance systems. Vehicle occupants and road users in the vicinity of the connected vehicle are thus daily immersed in a multi-source and multi-band electromagnetic field (EMF) generated by such technologies. This paper is the first comprehensive and specific survey about EMF exposure generated by the whole ensemble of connectivity technologies in cars. For each technology we describe the main characteristics, relevant standards, the application domain, and the typical deployment in modern cars. We then extensively describe the EMF exposure scenarios resulting from such technologies by resuming and comparing the outcomes from past studies on the exposure in the car. Results from past studies suggested that in no case EMF exposure was above the safe limits for the general population. Finally, open challenges for a more realistic characterization of the EMF exposure scenario in the connected car are discussed.

(1) Background: This work aims to assess human exposure to EMF due to two different wearable antennas tuned to two 5G bands. (2) Methods: The first one was centered in the lower 5G band, around f = 3.5 GHz, whereas the second one was tuned to the upper 5G band, at 26.5 GHz. Both antennas were positioned on the trunk of four simulated human models. The exposure assessment was performed by electromagnetic numerical simulations. Exposure levels were assessed by quantifying the specific absorption rate averaged on 10 g of tissue (SAR_10g) and the absorbed power density (S_ab), depending on the frequency of the wearable antenna. (3) Results: the higher exposure values that resulted were always mainly concentrated in a superficial area just below the antenna itself. In addition, these resulting distributions were narrowed around their peak values and tended to flatten toward lower values in farther anatomical body regions. All the exposure levels complied with ICNIRP guidelines when considering realistic input power. (4) Conclusions: This work highlights the importance of performing an exposure assessment when the antenna is placed on the human wearer, considering the growth of wearable technology and its wide variety of application, particularly regarding future 5G networks.

This study addressed an important but not yet thoroughly investigated topic regarding human exposure to radio-frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) generated by vehicular connectivity. In particular, the study assessed, by means of computational dosimetry, the RF-EMF exposure in road users near a car equipped with vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication antennas. The exposure scenario consisted of a 3D numerical model of a car with two V2V antennas, each fed with 1 W, operating at 5.9 GHz and an adult human model to simulate the road user near the car. The RF-EMF dose absorbed by the human model was calculated as the specific absorption rate (SAR), that is, the RF-EMF power absorbed per unit of mass. The highest SAR was observed in the skin of the head (34.7 mW/kg) and in the eyes (15 mW/kg); the SAR at the torso (including the genitals) and limbs was negligible or much lower than in the head and eyes. The SAR over the whole body was 0.19 mW/kg. The SAR was always well below the limits of human exposure in the 100 kHz–6 GHz band established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The proposed approach can be generalized to assess RF-EMF exposure in different conditions by varying the montage/number of V2V antennas and considering human models of different ages.