Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is native to the Andean region and has attracted a global growing interest due its unique nutritional value. The protein content of quinoa grains is higher than other cereals while it has better distribution of essential amino acids. It can be used as an alternative to milk proteins. Additionally, quinoa contains a high amount of essential fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, dietary fibers, and carbohydrates with beneficial hypoglycemic effects while being gluten-free. Furthermore, the quinoa plant is resistant to cold, salt, and drought, which leaves no doubt as to why it has been called the “golden grain”. On that account, production of quinoa and its products followed an increasing trend that gained attraction in 2013, as it was proclaimed to be the international year of quinoa. In this respect, this review provides an overview of the published results regarding the nutritional and biological properties of quinoa that have been cultivated in different parts of the world during the last two decades. This review sheds light on how traditional quinoa processing and products evolved and are being adopted into novel food processing and modern food products, as well as noting the potential of side stream processing of quinoa by-products in various industrial sectors. Furthermore, this review moves beyond the technological aspects of quinoa production by addressing the socio-economic and environmental challenges of its production, consumption, and marketizations to reflect a holistic view of promoting the production and consumption of quinoa.

The definition of optimum harvest and pruning interventions are important factors varying inflorescence yield and cannabinoid composition. This study investigated the impact of (i) harvest time (HT) and (ii) pruning techniques (PT) on plant biomass accumulation, CBD and CBDA-concentrations and total CBD yield of a chemotype III medical cannabis genotype under indoor cultivation. The experiment consisted of four HTs between 5 and 11 weeks of flowering and three PTs-apical cut (T); removal of side shoots (L) and control (C), not pruned plants. Results showed that inflorescence dry weight increased continuously, while the total CBD concentration did not differ significantly over time. For the studied genotype, optimum harvest time defined by highest total CBD yield was found at 9 weeks of flowering. Total CBD-concentration of inflorescences in different fractions of the plant’s height was significantly higher in the top (9.9%) in comparison with mid (8.2%) and low (7.7%) fractions. The T plants produced significantly higher dry weight of inflorescences and leaves than L and C. Total CBD yield of inflorescences for PTs were significantly different among pruned groups, but do not differ from the control group. However, a trend for higher yields was observed (T > C > L).

Indoor medicinal cannabis cultivation systems enable year-round cultivation and better control of growing factors, however, such systems are energy and resource intensive. Nutrient deprivation during flowering can trigger nutrient translocation and modulate the production of cannabinoids, which might increase agronomic nutrient use efficiency, and thus, a more sustainable use of fertilizers. This experiment compares two fertilizer types (mineral and organic) applied in three dilutions (80, 160 and 240 mg N L⁻¹) to evaluate the effect of nutrient deprivation during flowering on biomass, Cannabidiol (CBD) yield and nutrient use efficiency of N, P and K. This is the first study showing the potential to reduce fertilizer input while maintaining CBD yield of medicinal cannabis. Under nutrient stress, inflorescence yield was significantly lower at the final harvest, however, this was compensated by a higher CBD concentration, resulting in 95% of CBD yield using one-third less fertilizer. The higher nutrient use efficiency of N, P, and K in nutrient-deprived plants was achieved by a larger mobilization and translocation of nutrients increasing the utilization efficiency of acquired nutrients. The agronomic nutrient use efficiency of CBD yield – for N and K – increased 34% for the organic fertilizers and 72% for the mineral fertilizers comparing the dilution with one-third less nutrients (160) with the highest nutrient concentration (240). Differences in CBD yield between fertilizer types occurred only at the final harvest indicating limitations in nutrient uptake due to nutrient forms in the organic fertilizer. Our results showed a lower acquisition and utilization efficiency for the organic fertilizer, proposing the necessity to improve either the timing of bio-availability of organic fertilizers or the use of soil amendments.

Drought stress (DS) can restrict plant growth while potentially enhancing secondary metabolism through adaptive physiological responses. However, its effect on cannabinoid production remains uncertain, with previous studies reporting inconsistent findings. This study investigated how DS intensity and timing affect inflorescence biomass, cannabidiol (CBD) concentration, and CBD yield in two chemotype III (CBD-dominant; high-CBD, low-THC) medicinal cannabis genotypes differing in architecture and growth habit.: Two DS intensities were imposed during flowering relative to a well-watered control held at 60–80% of container capacity (CC) with a daily drip supply of 50–300 mL per plant. Under moderate DS, the substrate was allowed to dry to 20–30% CC before a daily replenishment of 50–150 mL was applied to prevent wilting; this cycle was repeated at three flowering stages (early, 46 days after planting [DAP]; mid, 60 DAP; late, 79 DAP). Under severe DS, water was withheld completely until the onset of wilting, as a single event at one of these three stages. Controlled water deficit elicited clear physiological responses, including reductions in relative water content, osmolality, transpiration, photosynthesis, and stomatal conductance, demonstrating effective perception of and adaptation to water limitation. Despite these responses, drought stress had only limited effects on inflorescence biomass and cannabinoid yield. Severe DS consistently impaired plant performance and provided no agronomic advantage. Although it sharply raised leaf-level water-use efficiency (WUEi), this reflected a short-term survival response achieved at the expense of carbon assimilation. Moderate DS reduced water consumption without negatively affecting biomass or CBD yield. Notably, genotype exerted a stronger influence on productivity and cannabinoid accumulation than the imposed irrigation regime. These findings indicate that severe drought stress is not a suitable strategy for enhancing cannabis production. Instead, moderate water deficit represents a practical approach to improving water-use efficiency while maintaining yield under controlled-environment cultivation. Overall, optimizing genotype selection appears to be a more effective strategy for maximizing productivity and cannabinoid yield than applying drought stress to stimulate secondary metabolism.