The main yield components in durum wheat are grain number per unit area (GN) and thousand kernel weight (TKW), both of which are affected by environmental conditions. The most critical developmental stage for their determination is flowering time, which partly depends on photoperiod sensitivity genes at Ppd-1 loci. Fifteen field experiments, involving 23 spring durum wheat genotypes containing all known allelic variants at the PHOTOPERIOD RESPONSE LOCUS (Ppd-A1 and Ppd-B1) were carried out at three sites at latitudes ranging from 41^∘ to 27^∘ N (Spain, Mexico-north, and Mexico-south, the latter in spring planting). Allele GS100 at Ppd-A1, which causes photoperiod insensitivity and results in early-flowering genotypes, tended to increase TKW and yield, albeit not substantially. Allele Ppd-B1a, also causing photoperiod insensitivity, did not affect flowering time or grain yield. Genotypes carrying the Ppd-B1b allele conferring photoperiod sensitivity had consistently higher GN, which did not translate into higher yield due to under-compensation in TKW. This increased GN was due to a greater number of grains spike^-1 as a result of a higher number of spikelets spike^-1. Daylength from double ridge to terminal spikelet stage was strongly and positively associated with the number of spikelets spike^-1 in Spain. This association was not found in the Mexico sites, thereby indicating that Ppd-B1b had an intrinsic effect on spikelets spike^-1 independently of environmental cues. Our results suggest that, in environments where yield is limited by the incapacity to produce a high GN, selecting for Ppd-B1b may be advisable.

This study analysed the effect of flowering time as influenced by photoperiod sensitivity genes on yield and yield stability in durum wheat. Twenty-three spring genotypes harbouring different allele combinations at Ppd-A1 and Ppd-B1 were grown in 15 field experiments at three sites at latitudes from 41° to 19° N (Spain, Mexico-North and Mexico-South). Low temperature and solar radiation before flowering and long day length during grain-filling characteristic for the Spanish site resulted in high grain number/m² (GN) and yield (GY), while a moderate GN combined with high solar radiation during grain-filling at Mexico-North led to heavier grains. Allele combination GS100-Ppd-A1a/Ppd-B1a reduced the flowering time up to nine days when compared with Ppd-A1b/Ppd-B1a. Differences in flowering time caused by Ppd-A1/Ppd-B1 allele combinations did not affect yield. Combinations GS105-Ppd-A1a/Ppd-B1b and Ppd-A1b/Ppd-B1b resulted in the highest GN, linked to spikelets/spike, which was higher in GS105-Ppd-A1a/Ppd-B1b due to more grains/spikelet. Flowering time caused by Eps had a minor effect on GN, spikes/m² and grains/spike, but late flowering resulted in reduced grain weight and GY. Allele combinations harbouring alleles conferring a similar photoperiod sensitivity response at Ppd-A1 and Ppd-B1 resulted in greater yield stability than combinations that carry alleles conferring a different response. Allele combination GS100-Ppd-A1a/Ppd-B1a was the most suitable in terms of yield and yield stability of durum wheat cultivated under irrigation within the studied latitudes.

Flowering time is the most critical developmental stage in wheat, as it determines environmental conditions during grain filling. Thirty‐five spring durum genotypes carrying all known allele variants at Ppd‐1 loci were evaluated in fully irrigated field experiments for three years at latitudes of 41°N (Spain), 27°N (northern Mexico) and 19°N (southern Mexico). Relationships between weight of central grains of main spikes (W) and thermal time from flowering to maturity were described by a logistic equation. Differences in flowering time between the allele combination causing the earliest (GS100/Ppd‐B1a) and the latest (Ppd‐A1b/Ppd‐B1a) flowering were 7, 20 and 18 days in Spain, northern Mexico and southern Mexico, respectively. Flowering delay drastically reduced the mean grain filling rate (R) and W at all sites. At autumn‐sowing sites, an increase of 1°C in mean temperature during the first half of the grain filling period decreased W by 5.2 mg per grain. At these sites, W was strongly dependent on R. At the spring‐sowing site (southern Mexico), W depended on both R and grain filling duration. Our results suggest that incorporating the allele combinations GS100/Ppd‐B1a and GS105/Ppd‐B1a (alleles conferring photoperiod insensitivity) in newly released varieties can reduce the negative effects of climate change on grain filling at the studied latitudes.

This study aimed to develop a nutraceutical gummy candy enriched with hydrolysed hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) as a natural antioxidant and antihypertensive ingredient. Three European cultivars—Futura 75, Henola, and KC Zuzana—were cultivated under rainfed (RF) and irrigated (RFCI) conditions and assessed for nutritional composition and bioactivity. Henola variety showed the most favourable profile, showing the highest protein content under RFCI (29.4 g 100 g⁻¹ d.m.) and the greatest phenolic concentration under RF (15.8 µmol GAE g⁻¹ d.m.), with 35–40% higher antioxidant capacity than the other cultivars. Henola (RF) was selected for enzymatic hydrolysis with Ultraflo^® XL, which enhanced total phenolics and antioxidant capacity by 65% and 58%, respectively, stabilizing after 18 h. Incorporation of the hydrolysate (0.66%) into a pectin-based gummy significantly (p < 0.05) increased total phenolic content by 52% and antioxidant capacity by up to 60% compared with controls. After simulated digestion, bioactivity decreased by 30–45% but remained higher than controls. The incorporation of 0. 66 g of hydrolysed ingredient in 100 g of gummy increased ACE inhibition by 10% after digestion, probably associated with the peptides released during the digestion, confirming hydrolysed hemp as a stable multifunctional ingredient for plant-based nutraceutical formulations targeting oxidative stress and hypertension.