A folyamatosan változó geopolitikai kihívások és az Európai Unió azokra adott – részben – energiapolitikai válaszai nagyban befolyásolják Magyarország energiapiacának alakulását. Tanulmányunk az EU hosszú távú klíma- és energiapolitikai céljai, valamint az orosz-ukrán háború miatt fellépő energiapolitikai kihívások tükrében az energiatermelés és -felhasználás alapvető mintázatainak alakulására, tendenciáinak feltárására fókuszál, valamint bemutatja Magyarország eddig elért eredményeit az energiaellátás biztonsága és fenntarthatósága területén. Célja, hogy az európai folyamatok kontextusában átfogó képet nyújtson a magyar energiapiacról. Írásunk az energiapolitikát érintő európai és hazai jogi aktusok feldolgozásán, valamint az elérhető legfrissebb Eurostat és KSH adatok elemzésén alapul. Eredményeink rámutatnak arra, hogy a primer energiafelhasználás, illetve egyes energiahordozók importjának csökkenése nem az energiahatékonyság javulásán, hanem a COVID-19 járvány okozta gazdasági visszaesésen és az orosz-ukrán háború nyomán kialakult energiaválság átvészelését szolgáló energiamegtakarításokon alapszik. Az új, ambiciózus EU-célkitűzések elérése továbbra is jelentős beruházásokat igényel az Európai Unió és Magyarország szintjén is.

A significant part of the world's population is moving into cities. This is primarily due to the high level of economic activity in metropolitan regions. Growing populations will require more public spaces. Therefore, the role of public spaces will become increasingly significant. However, the dense nature of inner-city spaces, especially in historical city centres, makes the expansion of pedestrian areas a serious challenge. Opening inner courtyards to augment public spaces could help solve the problem. This paper discusses the example of two inner courtyards in Gyor which had been opened for pedestrian traffic in the 1960s and 1980s. In order to understand how the role of inner courtyards has evolved, a brief history of public spaces and inner courtyards is presented. Historically, public spaces have been the spaces of community life for celebrations, fairs, festivals and even sporting events. Certain spaces have always been set aside, and their locations chosen, for specially designated functions. The biggest difference between inner courtyards and public spaces is that the former are generally private areas. It was only in the 19th century when the first shops appeared in inner courtyards that they were opened to pedestrians. The settlement morphology of Gyor and the Becsi and Hungaria courtyards are described. Pedestrian traffic through the two inner courtyards was measured empirically during three days. A method was designed to count the number of pedestrians who used the street furniture, terraces and recreational equipment in the Becsi and the Hungaria courtyards. This number was also regarded as a measure of public acceptance. The inner courtyards in Gyor turned out to be very popular not only among tourists but also with the local population. The amount of traffic was significantly influenced by the presence of street furniture, shops and catering facilities. The Becsi courtyard was more popular among the middle-aged, and the Hungaria courtyard more with families and younger age groups. The example of the inner courtyards in Gyor suggests that it may be worth considering opening inner courtyards in other cities, too, but not just for pedestrians but also for shops, catering facilities, playgrounds, etc. Another important aspect is to include inner courtyards in the traffic network as to offer shorter routes for pedestrians. All of those elements are essential for making inner courtyards a successful and well-accepted expansion to public open spaces.

The attractiveness of public transport services plays an important role in urban sustainability as the greater use of public transport reduces individual transport and thereby the amount of congestion, noise, and pollution. However, in order to make public transport more financeable, networks and timetables are often rationalized by minimizing the costs in such a way that the currently assessed travel demands remain served. Although the efficient use of public resources is obviously a matter of public interest, such service rationalization often leads to the public transport network becoming too complicated and difficult for passengers to understand, which worsens the competitiveness of public transport. The question of the applicable service frequencies is also an important component of high-quality services. This paper examines these two major factors by presenting some suitable indicators as well as the feasibility conditions of the recommendations in the relevant literature, focusing on a case study from Győr, Western Hungary.