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Pius Kairigo
Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland

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Journal article
Published: 08 September 2020 in Environmental Pollution
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The occurrence of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) in the environment is becoming a major area of concern due to their undesirable effects on non-target organisms. This study investigated the occurrence and risk of contamination by five antibiotics and three antiretrovirals drugs in a fast-growing peri-urban area in Kenya, with inadequate sewer system coverage. Due to poor sewage connectivity and poorly designed decentralized systems, wastewater is directly released in open drains. Water and sediment samples were collected from open surface water drains, while wastewater samples were collected from centralized wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). Solid-phase extraction and ultrasonic-assisted extraction for the aqueous and sediment samples respectively were carried out and extracts analyzed by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) using isotopically labeled internal standards. APIs were observed with the detection frequency ranging from 36% to 100%. High mean concentrations of 48.7 μg L−1, 108 μg L−1, and 532 μg L−1 were observed in surface drains for Lamivudine (3 TC), Sulfamethoxazole (SMX), Ciprofloxacin (CIP) respectively. Drain sediments also showed high concentrations of APIs ranging from 2.1 to 13,100 μg kg−1. APIs in this study exceeded those observed in existing literature studies. JKUAT WWTP removal efficiencies varied from −90.68% to 72.67%. Total APIs emission load of the study area was 3550 mg d−1 with WWTP effluent contributing higher loads (2620 mg d−1) than surface water drains (640 mg d−1). Zidovudine (ZDV), nevirapine (NVP), and trimethoprim (TMP) loads in drains, however, exceeded WWTP effluent. Low to high ecotoxicity risk of the individual APIs were observed to the aquatic environment, with high risks for the development of antibiotic resistance in microbiome as determined by the risk quotient (RQ) approach. Risk management through efficient wastewater collection, conveyance, and treatment is necessary to suppress the measured concentrations.

ACS Style

Cecilia W. Muriuki; Patrick G. Home; James M. Raude; Elijah K. Ngumba; Gerryshom K. Munala; Pius K. Kairigo; Anthony N. Gachanja; Tuula A. Tuhkanen. Occurrence, distribution, and risk assessment of pharmerciuticals in wastewater and open surface drains of peri-urban areas: Case study of Juja town, Kenya. Environmental Pollution 2020, 267, 115503 .

AMA Style

Cecilia W. Muriuki, Patrick G. Home, James M. Raude, Elijah K. Ngumba, Gerryshom K. Munala, Pius K. Kairigo, Anthony N. Gachanja, Tuula A. Tuhkanen. Occurrence, distribution, and risk assessment of pharmerciuticals in wastewater and open surface drains of peri-urban areas: Case study of Juja town, Kenya. Environmental Pollution. 2020; 267 ():115503.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cecilia W. Muriuki; Patrick G. Home; James M. Raude; Elijah K. Ngumba; Gerryshom K. Munala; Pius K. Kairigo; Anthony N. Gachanja; Tuula A. Tuhkanen. 2020. "Occurrence, distribution, and risk assessment of pharmerciuticals in wastewater and open surface drains of peri-urban areas: Case study of Juja town, Kenya." Environmental Pollution 267, no. : 115503.

Journal article
Published: 06 July 2020 in Science of The Total Environment
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The discharge of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) into the aquatic environment from wastewater effluents is a concern in many countries. Although many studies have been conducted to evaluate the APIs removal efficiencies and emissions to the environment in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), most of these studies considered the aqueous and sludge phases, disregarding the suspended particulate matter (SPM) phase. To try to understand the role of the SPM, the occurrence of five most common antibiotics and three antiretroviral drugs (ARVDs) commonly used in Kenya were investigated in this study. APIs partitioning and mass loading in influents and effluents of three different WWTPs: trickling filters, stabilization ponds, and decentralized fecal sludge system, were evaluated. API concentration levels ranging from ˂LOQ (limit of quantification) to 92 μgL−1 and ˂LOQ to 82.2 mgkg−1 were observed in aqueous samples and solid samples respectively, with SPM accounting for most of the higher concentrations. The use of the aqueous phase alone for determination of removal efficiencies showed underestimations of API removal as compared to when solid phases are also considered. Negative removal efficiencies were observed, depending on the compound and the type of WWTP. The negative removals were associated with deconjugation of metabolites, aggregated accumulation of APIs in the WWTPs, as well as unaccounted hydraulic retention time during sampling. Compound characteristics, environmental factors, and WWTPs operation influenced WWTPs removal efficiencies. Wastewater stabilization ponds had the poorest removals efficiencies with an average of −322%. High total mass loads into the WWTPs influent and effluent of 22,729 and 22,385 mg day−1 1000 PE−1 were observed respectively. The results aims at aiding scientists and engineers in planning and designing of WWTPs. Findings also aim at aiding policy-making on pharmaceutical drug use and recommend proper wastewater management practices to manage the high mass loading observed in the WWTPs.

ACS Style

Cecilia Muriuki; Pius Kairigo; Patrick Home; Elijah Ngumba; James Raude; Anthony Gachanja; Tuula Tuhkanen. Mass loading, distribution, and removal of antibiotics and antiretroviral drugs in selected wastewater treatment plants in Kenya. Science of The Total Environment 2020, 743, 140655 .

AMA Style

Cecilia Muriuki, Pius Kairigo, Patrick Home, Elijah Ngumba, James Raude, Anthony Gachanja, Tuula Tuhkanen. Mass loading, distribution, and removal of antibiotics and antiretroviral drugs in selected wastewater treatment plants in Kenya. Science of The Total Environment. 2020; 743 ():140655.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cecilia Muriuki; Pius Kairigo; Patrick Home; Elijah Ngumba; James Raude; Anthony Gachanja; Tuula Tuhkanen. 2020. "Mass loading, distribution, and removal of antibiotics and antiretroviral drugs in selected wastewater treatment plants in Kenya." Science of The Total Environment 743, no. : 140655.

Journal article
Published: 13 May 2020 in Water
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Presence of antimicrobial cocktails in the hydrological cycles is of interest because of their potential to mediate antimicrobial resistance within the natural environment. In this study, we determined the concentrations of selected antibiotics and antiretroviral drugs (ARVDs) in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent, effluent suspended particulate matter (SPM), surface waters and river sediments in Kenya in order to determine the extent of pollution within the sampled environment. Target analysis for the most common antibiotics and ARVDs was done. Sulfamethoxazole (SMX), ciprofloxacin (CIP), trimethoprim (TMP), norfloxacin (NOR), zidovidine (ZDV), lamivudine (3TC) and nevirapine (NVP) were analyzed using LC-ESI-MS/MS. Effluent aqueous phase had concentrations ranging between 1.2 µg L−1 to 956.4 µg L−1 while the effluent SPM showed higher concentrations, ranging between 2.19 mg Kg−1 and 82.26 mg Kg−1. This study shows emission of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) from WWTP to the environment mainly occurs via the SPM phase, which is usually overlooked in environmental analyses. Concentrations in surface waters and river sediments ranged between 1.1 µg L−1 to 228 µg L−1 and 11 µg Kg−1 to 4125 µg Kg−1 respectively. ARVDs occurred at consistently higher concentrations than antibiotics in both the aqueous and solid samples. The wastewater treatment plants and lagoons where sludge degradation should occur, are sources of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) including transformational products, nutrients and organic matter that are released back to the aqueous phase.

ACS Style

Pius Kairigo; Elijah Ngumba; Lotta-Riina Sundberg; Anthony Gachanja; Tuula Tuhkanen. Contamination of Surface Water and River Sediments by Antibiotic and Antiretroviral Drug Cocktails in Low and Middle-Income Countries: Occurrence, Risk and Mitigation Strategies. Water 2020, 12, 1376 .

AMA Style

Pius Kairigo, Elijah Ngumba, Lotta-Riina Sundberg, Anthony Gachanja, Tuula Tuhkanen. Contamination of Surface Water and River Sediments by Antibiotic and Antiretroviral Drug Cocktails in Low and Middle-Income Countries: Occurrence, Risk and Mitigation Strategies. Water. 2020; 12 (5):1376.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pius Kairigo; Elijah Ngumba; Lotta-Riina Sundberg; Anthony Gachanja; Tuula Tuhkanen. 2020. "Contamination of Surface Water and River Sediments by Antibiotic and Antiretroviral Drug Cocktails in Low and Middle-Income Countries: Occurrence, Risk and Mitigation Strategies." Water 12, no. 5: 1376.

Journal article
Published: 25 February 2020 in Science of The Total Environment
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Active pharmaceutical ingredients, especially antibiotics, are micropollutants whose continuous flow into hydrological cycles has the potential to mediate antibiotic resistance in the environment and cause toxicity to sensitive organisms. Here, we investigated the levels of selected antibiotics in four wastewater treatment plants and the receiving water bodies. The measured environmental concentrations were compared with the proposed compound-specific predicted no-effect concentration for resistance selection values. The concentration of doxycycline, amoxicillin, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin within the influents, effluents, surface waters and river sediments ranged between 0.2 and 49.3 μgL−1, 0.1 to 21.4 μgL−1; ˂ 0.1 and 56.6 μgL−1; and 1.8 and 47.4 μgkg−1, respectively. Compared to the effluent concentrations, the surface waters upstream and downstream one of the four studied treatment plants showed two to five times higher concentrations of ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin and sulfamethoxazole. The risk quotient for bacterial resistance selection in effluent and surface water ranged between ˂0.1 and 53, indicating a medium to high risk of antibiotic resistance developing within the study areas. Therefore, risk mitigation and prevention strategies are a matter of priority in the affected areas.

ACS Style

Pius Kairigo; Elijah Ngumba; Lotta-Riina Sundberg; Anthony Gachanja; Tuula Tuhkanen. Occurrence of antibiotics and risk of antibiotic resistance evolution in selected Kenyan wastewaters, surface waters and sediments. Science of The Total Environment 2020, 720, 137580 .

AMA Style

Pius Kairigo, Elijah Ngumba, Lotta-Riina Sundberg, Anthony Gachanja, Tuula Tuhkanen. Occurrence of antibiotics and risk of antibiotic resistance evolution in selected Kenyan wastewaters, surface waters and sediments. Science of The Total Environment. 2020; 720 ():137580.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pius Kairigo; Elijah Ngumba; Lotta-Riina Sundberg; Anthony Gachanja; Tuula Tuhkanen. 2020. "Occurrence of antibiotics and risk of antibiotic resistance evolution in selected Kenyan wastewaters, surface waters and sediments." Science of The Total Environment 720, no. : 137580.

Journal article
Published: 26 January 2018 in Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development
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Background: Natural phytoconstituents produced by plants for their sustenance have been reported to reduce disease.Objectives: This study determined the phytoconstituents, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of crude methanolic extracts of Entada leptostachya and Prosopis juliflora extracts.Methodology: Antioxidant activity was determined using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and β-carotene assays; the total phenolic and flavonoid were estimated using Folin–Ciocalteau and aluminium chloride, whereas antimicrobial activity was determined using the zone of inhibition method.Results: Screening of the extracts revealed the presence of terpenoids, flavonoids, saponins and phenols. Fourier transform infrared spectra of the extracts revealed presence of hydrogen bonded –OH functional group. E. leptostachya barks had the highest antioxidant activity followed by P. juliflora roots, E. leptostachya roots and P. juliflora leaves [μg/mL]. Prosopis juliflora (roots) had the highest bleaching effect, whereas E. leptostachya (barks) had the lowest bleaching effect. The total flavonoids were determined to be 0.15 ± 0.02 mg/g, 1.18 ± 0.18 mg/g, 0.39 ± 0.05 mg/g and 0.64 ± 0.03 mg/g for E. leptostachya roots, E. leptostachya barks, P. juliflora leaves and P. juliflora roots extracts, respectively. The total phenols were determined to be 0.93 ± 0.18 mg/g, 2.69 ± 0.41 mg/g, 0.62 ± 0.08 mg/g and 0.62 ± 0.08 mg/g for E. leptostachya roots, E. leptostachya barks, P. juliflora roots and P. juliflora leaves extracts. All plant extracts exhibited moderate activity against the growth of selected microorganisms.Conclusion: Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of the two plants was as a result of secondary metabolites found in the crude extracts.

ACS Style

Mercy C. Ruto; Christine M. Ngugi; Patrick G. Kareru; Kipyegon Cheruiyot; Sylvester O. Rechab; Edwin S. Madivoli; Jackson Mutembei; Pius Kairigo; Ernest G. Maina. Antioxidant activity and antimicrobial properties of Entada leptostachya and Prosopis juliflora extracts. Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development 2018, 2, 8 .

AMA Style

Mercy C. Ruto, Christine M. Ngugi, Patrick G. Kareru, Kipyegon Cheruiyot, Sylvester O. Rechab, Edwin S. Madivoli, Jackson Mutembei, Pius Kairigo, Ernest G. Maina. Antioxidant activity and antimicrobial properties of Entada leptostachya and Prosopis juliflora extracts. Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development. 2018; 2 (1):8.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mercy C. Ruto; Christine M. Ngugi; Patrick G. Kareru; Kipyegon Cheruiyot; Sylvester O. Rechab; Edwin S. Madivoli; Jackson Mutembei; Pius Kairigo; Ernest G. Maina. 2018. "Antioxidant activity and antimicrobial properties of Entada leptostachya and Prosopis juliflora extracts." Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development 2, no. 1: 8.

Journal article
Published: 26 January 2018 in Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development
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Background: Plants are new sources of antibacterial agents, hence the need to determine and evaluate the antibacterial properties, antioxidant activity and gas chromatography – mass spectrometer (GC-MS) profile of medicinal plants. Methodology: In this study, sequential extraction of Prunus africana and Harrisonia abyssinica was used to obtain ethyl acetate and methanol extracts. Antioxidant activity was evaluated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), whereas the total phenolic and total flavonoid contents were estimated using Folin-Ciocalteu and aluminium chloride, respectively. Antibacterial properties of the extracts against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coliand Candida albicans were estimated using the disc diffusion method and compared against streptomycin. Results: Screening of crude methanolic extracts revealed the presence of secondary metabolites which was further confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) characterisation that revealed the presence of H-bonded OH functional groups. The extracts revealed that P. africana had a higher total phenolic and total flavonoid contents compared to H. abyssinica. Methanolic extracts of both plants had moderate activity against selected microorganisms and both inhibited DPPH radical scavenging activity. GC-MS analysis of P. africana and H. abyssinica extracts revealed the presence of several phytochemicals that have been reported to have medicinal uses. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents showed positive correlations with the DPPH radical scavenging activity and negative correlations with EC50. Conclusion: Prunus africana and H. abyssinica extracts had moderate antimicrobial properties against the selected microorganisms because of the presence of secondary metabolites.

ACS Style

Edwin S. Madivoli; Ernest G. Maina; Pius Kairigo; Martin K. Murigi; Joel Ogilo; Jared Nyang'Au; Paul K. Kimani; Cheruiyot Kipyegon. In vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkman (bark extracts) and Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. extracts (bark extracts): A comparative study. Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development 2018, 2, 1 .

AMA Style

Edwin S. Madivoli, Ernest G. Maina, Pius Kairigo, Martin K. Murigi, Joel Ogilo, Jared Nyang'Au, Paul K. Kimani, Cheruiyot Kipyegon. In vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkman (bark extracts) and Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. extracts (bark extracts): A comparative study. Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development. 2018; 2 (1):1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Edwin S. Madivoli; Ernest G. Maina; Pius Kairigo; Martin K. Murigi; Joel Ogilo; Jared Nyang'Au; Paul K. Kimani; Cheruiyot Kipyegon. 2018. "In vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkman (bark extracts) and Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. extracts (bark extracts): A comparative study." Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development 2, no. 1: 1.

Journal article
Published: 10 January 2016 in Chemical Science International Journal
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Pius Kairigo; E. S. Madivoli; E. G. Maina; P. K. Kimani; J. C. Ogilo; D. Bisera; J. G. Kinaichu. Assessment of Groundwater Quality from Aquifers in Garissa County. Chemical Science International Journal 2016, 17, 1 -11.

AMA Style

Pius Kairigo, E. S. Madivoli, E. G. Maina, P. K. Kimani, J. C. Ogilo, D. Bisera, J. G. Kinaichu. Assessment of Groundwater Quality from Aquifers in Garissa County. Chemical Science International Journal. 2016; 17 (4):1-11.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pius Kairigo; E. S. Madivoli; E. G. Maina; P. K. Kimani; J. C. Ogilo; D. Bisera; J. G. Kinaichu. 2016. "Assessment of Groundwater Quality from Aquifers in Garissa County." Chemical Science International Journal 17, no. 4: 1-11.

Journal article
Published: 10 January 2016 in Chemical Science International Journal
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ACS Style

P. K. Kimani; P. G. Kareru; S. E. Madivoli; Pius Kairigo; E. G. Maina; O. S. Rechab. Comparative Study of Carboxymethyl Cellulose Synthesis from Selected Kenyan Biomass. Chemical Science International Journal 2016, 17, 1 -8.

AMA Style

P. K. Kimani, P. G. Kareru, S. E. Madivoli, Pius Kairigo, E. G. Maina, O. S. Rechab. Comparative Study of Carboxymethyl Cellulose Synthesis from Selected Kenyan Biomass. Chemical Science International Journal. 2016; 17 (4):1-8.

Chicago/Turabian Style

P. K. Kimani; P. G. Kareru; S. E. Madivoli; Pius Kairigo; E. G. Maina; O. S. Rechab. 2016. "Comparative Study of Carboxymethyl Cellulose Synthesis from Selected Kenyan Biomass." Chemical Science International Journal 17, no. 4: 1-8.

Journal article
Published: 10 January 2016 in International Research Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry
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ACS Style

Edwin Madivoli; P. G. Kareru; A. N. Gachanja; Samuel Mugo; M. K. Murigi; Pius Kairigo; Cheruiyot Kipyegon; J. K. Mutembei; F.K. Njonge. Adsorption of Selected Heavy Metals on Modified Nano Cellulose. International Research Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry 2016, 12, 1 -9.

AMA Style

Edwin Madivoli, P. G. Kareru, A. N. Gachanja, Samuel Mugo, M. K. Murigi, Pius Kairigo, Cheruiyot Kipyegon, J. K. Mutembei, F.K. Njonge. Adsorption of Selected Heavy Metals on Modified Nano Cellulose. International Research Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2016; 12 (3):1-9.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Edwin Madivoli; P. G. Kareru; A. N. Gachanja; Samuel Mugo; M. K. Murigi; Pius Kairigo; Cheruiyot Kipyegon; J. K. Mutembei; F.K. Njonge. 2016. "Adsorption of Selected Heavy Metals on Modified Nano Cellulose." International Research Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry 12, no. 3: 1-9.