The aim of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the effects of complex training (CT) on sprint, jump, and change of direction (COD) ability among soccer players. After an electronic search, 10 peer-reviewed articles were considered in the meta-analysis. The athletes included in this meta-analysis were amateur to professional level male soccer players (age range, 14–23 years). These studies incorporated CT in soccer players who were compared to a control group. Significant moderate to large improvements were observed in the CT group [sprint: standard mean difference (SMD) = 0.92–1.91; jump: SMD = 0.96–1.58; COD: SMD = 0.97–1.49] when compared to control groups. Subgroup analysis were also conducted based on age, duration, and competitive level. The beneficial effects of CT were greater in players <18 vs. ≥18 years (linear sprinting; SMD = 2.01 vs. −0.13), after ≥8 vs. <8 weeks (jumping and COD; SMD = 1.55–2.01 vs. 0.31–0.64, respectively) and among professional vs. amateur players (linear sprinting and with COD; SMD = 1.53–1.58 vs. 0.08–0.63, respectively). In conclusion, regular soccer training programs may be supplemented with CT to improve sprint, jump, and COD performance. A longer duration of CT (≥8 weeks) seems to be optimal in improving the physical abilities of soccer players. Professional players and <18 years players may benefit more from CT program.

Background: The reactive strength index (RSI) is meaningfully associated with independent markers of athletic (e.g., linear sprint speed) and neuromuscular performance [e.g., stretch–shortening cycle (SSC)]. Plyometric jump training (PJT) is particularly suitable to improve the RSI due to exercises performed in the SSC. However, no literature review has attempted to meta-analyse the large number of studies regarding the potential effects of PJT on the RSI in healthy individuals across the lifespan.Objective: The aim of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to examine the effects of PJT on the RSI of healthy individuals across the lifespan compared with active/specific-active controls.Methods: Three electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science) were searched up to May 2022. According to the PICOS approach, the eligibility criteria were: (1) healthy participants, (2) PJT interventions of ≥ 3 weeks, (3) active (e.g., athletes involved in standard training) and specific-active (e.g., individuals using heavy resistance training) control group(s), (4) a measure of jump-based RSI pre-post training, and (5) controlled studies with multi-groups in randomised and non-randomised designs. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used to assess the risk of bias. The random-effects model was used to compute the meta-analyses, reporting Hedges’geffect sizes (ES) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Statistical significance was set atp ≤ 0.05. Subgroup analyses were performed (chronological age; PJT duration, frequency, number of sessions, total number of jumps; randomization). A meta-regression was conducted to verify if PJT frequency, duration, and total number of sessions predicted the effects of PJT on the RSI. Certainty or confidence in the body of evidence was assessed using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE). Potential adverse health effects derived from PJT were researched and reported.Results: Sixty-one articles were meta-analysed, with a median PEDro score of 6.0, a low risk of bias and good methodological quality, comprising 2576 participants with an age range of 8.1–73.1 years (males, ~ 78%; aged under 18 years, ~ 60%); 42 studies included participants with a sport background (e.g., soccer, runners). The PJT duration ranged from 4 to 96 weeks, with one to three weekly exercise sessions. The RSI testing protocols involved the use of contact mats (n = 42) and force platforms (n = 19). Most studies reported RSI as mm/ms (n = 25 studies) from drop jump analysis (n = 47 studies). In general, PJT groups improved RSI compared to controls: ES = 0.54, 95% CI 0.46–0.62,p < 0.001. Training-induced RSI changes were greater (p = 0.023) for adults [i.e., age ≥ 18 years (group mean)] compared with youth. PJT was more effective with a duration of > 7 weeks versus ≤ 7 weeks, > 14 total PJT sessions versus ≤ 14 sessions, and three weekly sessions versus < three sessions (p = 0.027–0.060). Similar RSI improvements were noted after ≤ 1080 versus > 1080 total jumps, and for non-randomised versus randomised studies. Heterogeneity (I²) was low (0.0–22.2%) in nine analyses and moderate in three analyses (29.1–58.1%). According to the meta-regression, none of the analysed training variables explained the effects of PJT on RSI (p = 0.714–0.984,R² = 0.0). The certainty of the evidence was moderate for the main analysis, and low-to-moderate across the moderator analyses. Most studies did not report soreness, pain, injury or related adverse effects related to PJT.Conclusions: The effects of PJT on the RSI were greater compared with active/specific-active controls, including traditional sport-specific training as well as alternative training interventions (e.g., high-load slow-speed resistance training). This conclusion is derived from 61 articles with low risk of bias (good methodological quality), low heterogeneity, and moderate certainty of evidence, comprising 2576 participants. PJT-related improvements on RSI were greater for adults versus youths, after > 7 training weeks versus ≤ 7 weeks, with > 14 total PJT versus ≤ 14 sessions, and with three versus < three weekly sessions.

Background: A growing body of literature is available regarding the effects of plyometric jump training (PJT) on measures of physical fitness (PF) and sport-specific performance (SSP) in-water sports athletes (WSA, i.e. those competing in sports that are practiced on [e.g. rowing] or in [e.g. swimming; water polo] water). Indeed, incoherent findings have been observed across individual studies making it difficult to provide the scientific community and coaches with consistent evidence. As such, a comprehensive systematic literature search should be conducted to clarify the existent evidence, identify the major gaps in the literature, and offer recommendations for future studies.Aim: To examine the effects of PJT compared with active/specific-active controls on the PF (one-repetition maximum back squat strength, squat jump height, countermovement jump height, horizontal jump distance, body mass, fat mass, thigh girth) and SSP (in-water vertical jump, in-water agility, time trial) outcomes in WSA, through a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized and non-randomized controlled studies.Methods: The electronic databases PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched up to January 2022. According to the PICOS approach, the eligibility criteria were: (population) healthy WSA; (intervention) PJT interventions involving unilateral and/or bilateral jumps, and a minimal duration of ≥ 3 weeks; (comparator) active (i.e. standard sports training) or specific-active (i.e. alternative training intervention) control group(s); (outcome) at least one measure of PF (e.g. jump height) and/or SSP (e.g. time trial) before and after training; and (study design) multi-groups randomized and non-randomized controlled trials. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. The DerSimonian and Laird random-effects model was used to compute the meta-analyses, reporting effect sizes (ES, i.e. Hedges’g) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Statistical significance was set atp ≤ 0.05. Certainty or confidence in the body of evidence for each outcome was assessed using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE), considering its five dimensions: risk of bias in studies, indirectness, inconsistency, imprecision, and risk of publication bias.Results: A total of 11,028 studies were identified with 26 considered eligible for inclusion. The median PEDro score across the included studies was 5.5 (moderate-to-high methodological quality). The included studies involved a total of 618 WSA of both sexes (330 participants in the intervention groups [31 groups] and 288 participants in the control groups [26 groups]), aged between 10 and 26 years, and from different sports disciplines such as swimming, triathlon, rowing, artistic swimming, and water polo. The duration of the training programmes in the intervention and control groups ranged from 4 to 36 weeks. The results of the meta-analysis indicated no effects of PJT compared to control conditions (including specific-active controls) for in-water vertical jump or agility (ES = − 0.15 to 0.03;p = 0.477 to 0.899), or for body mass, fat mass, and thigh girth (ES = 0.06 to 0.15;p = 0.452 to 0.841). In terms of measures of PF, moderate-to-large effects were noted in favour of the PJT groups compared to the control groups (including specific-active control groups) for one-repetition maximum back squat strength, horizontal jump distance, squat jump height, and countermovement jump height (ES = 0.67 to 1.47;p = 0.041 to < 0.001), in addition to a small effect noted in favour of the PJT for SSP time-trial speed (ES = 0.42;p = 0.005). Certainty of evidence across the included studies varied from very low-to-moderate.Conclusions: PJT is more effective to improve measures of PF and SSP in WSA compared to control conditions involving traditional sport-specific training as well as alternative training interventions (e.g. resistance training). It is worth noting that the present findings are derived from 26 studies of moderate-to-high methodological quality, low-to-moderate impact of heterogeneity, and very low-to-moderate certainty of evidence based on GRADE.Trial registrationThe protocol for this systematic review with meta-analysis was published in the Open Science platform (OSF) on January 23, 2022, under the registration doihttps://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/NWHS3(internet archive link:https://archive.org/details/osf-registrations-nwhs3-v1).

We aimed to assess the athletic performance changes in combat sport athletes (CoSAs) after plyometric-jump training (PJT), compared to control conditions, through a systematic review with meta-analysis. Following PRISMA guidelines, three electronic databases were searched for includable articles, according to a PICOS approach. Using a random-effects model, Hedges’ g effects sizes (ES) were calculated. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I² statistic, with values of 75% representing low, moderate, and high levels of heterogeneity, respectively. Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. The certainty of evidence was assessed using the GRADE approach. Twelve eligible articles were identified for systematic review, seven of high quality and five of moderate quality, according to the PEDro scale. The studies recruited taekwondo, silat, wrestling, judo, fencing, and karate athletes (292 total participants), including specific–active and active controls. Most participants had a mean age of <18 years and were males (n = 225). Compared to the control, PJT programmes, involving 4–12 weeks and 2–3 sessions per week, induced small to moderate improvements (ES = 0.47 to 1.04) in athletes’ maximal strength (e.g., 1RM squat), vertical jump height, change-of-direction speed, and specific performance (e.g., fencing movement velocity), although without meaningful effects on body mass, fat mass, and muscle mass (ES = 0.02 to −0.06). Most (7 of 8) outcomes attained low heterogeneity. The outcome-level GRADE analysis indicated a certainty of evidence from low to moderate. In conclusion, PJT, when compared to control conditions, may improve CoSA athletic performance.

Background: The complex-contrast training (CCT) method utilizes two exercises with different loads and movement velocities in a set-by-set fashion to induce multiple neuromuscular adaptations. The speculated primary mechanism involves the post-activation potentiation or post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) of the muscles used during the heavy load (low velocity) exercise, thereby improving the performance of lower load (high velocity) exercise. However, no previous study has attempted to systematically synthesize the available evidence on CCT (e.g., if post-activation potentiation or PAPE was measured during the training sessions during the intervention period). This study aimed to synthesize the available evidence on CCT using a systematic scoping review approach. More specifically, we identified gaps in the literature using an evidence gap map (EGM), and provided future directions for research. Methods: Three electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) were searched up to 20th February 2024. Data were extracted under a PICO framework: (a) Participants-related data (e.g., age, sex, type of sport); (b) Intervention-related data (e.g., duration of training); (c) Comparators (when available); and (d) Outcomes (e.g., measures of physical fitness). Interactive EGMs were created using the EPPI mapper software. Results: From the 5,695 records screened, 68 studies were eligible for inclusion, involving 1,821 participants (only 145 females from 5 studies). All CCT interventions lasted ≤ 16 weeks. More than half of the studies assessed countermovement jump, sprint, and maximal strength performances. No studies were identified which examined upper-body CCT exercises alone, and no study assessed PAPE during the CCT sessions. Overall, the available evidence was rated with a low level of confidence. Conclusions: In conclusion, whether CCT produces a PAPE that translates into longitudinal performance gains remains unclear. Moreover, the available evidence on the effects of CCT on various outcomes provides low confidence regarding the most effective way to implement this training method, particularly among females, and beyond long-term interventions.

The aim of this study was to compare the effects of small-sided soccer games (SSSGs) and traditional warm-up (TWU) routines on physical fitness qualities in soccer players. Following a between-subject, randomized design, amateur-levelsoccer players were assigned to a SSSG warm-up (n = 10; age:...