Summary: 3D printers are currently widely available and very popular among the general public. However, the use of these devices may pose health risks to users, attributable to air‐quality issues arising from gaseous and particulate emissions in particular. We characterized emissions from a low‐end 3D printer based on material extrusion, using the most common polymers: acrylonitrile‐butadiene‐styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid (PLA). Measurements were carried out in an emission chamber and a conventional room. Particle emission rates were obtained by direct measurement and modeling, whereas the influence of extrusion temperature was also evaluated. ABS was the material with the highest aerosol emission rate. The nanoparticle emission ranged from 3.7·10 ⁸ to 1.4·10 ⁹ particles per second (# s ⁻¹ ) in chamber measurements and from 2.0·10 ⁹ to 4.0·10 ⁹ # s ⁻¹ in room measurements, when the recommended extruder temperature was used. Printing with PLA emitted nanoparticles at the rate of 1.0·10 ⁷ # s ⁻¹ inside the chamber and negligible emissions in room experiments. Emission rates were observed to depend strongly on extruder temperature. The particles’ mean size ranged from 7.8 to 10.5 nanometers (nm). We also detected a significant emission rate of particles of 1 to 3 nm in size during all printing events. The amounts of volatile organic and other gaseous compounds were only traceable and are not expected to pose health risks. Our study suggests that measures preventing human exposure to high nanoparticle concentrations should be adopted when using low‐end 3D printers.

This study reviews use of video exposure monitoring (VEM, also known as PIMEX) as an occupational hygiene tool since its inception in the mid-1980s. VEM involves the combination of real-time monitoring instruments, usually for gases/vapours and dust, with video of the worker's activities. VEM is an established method used by practitioners in different countries. The technical aspects of these VEM systems are described, then applications of VEM are discussed, focussing on task analysis, training (risk communication), encouraging worker participation in and motivation for improvements in the workplace environment and occupational hygiene research. The experiences from these applications are used to illustrate how exposure visualization with video can act as a catalyst, initiating a change process in the workplace. Finally, the role of VEM as a workplace improvement tool, now and in the future, is discussed.

Pulmonary exposure to micro- and nanoscaled particles has been widely linked to adverse health effects and high concentrations of respirable particles are expected to occur within and around many industrial settings. In this study, a field-measurement campaign was performed at an industrial manufacturer, during the production of paints. Spatial and personal measurements were conducted and results were used to estimate the mass flows in the facility and the airborne particle release to the outdoor environment. Airborne particle number concentration (1 × 10³–1.0 × 10⁴ cm⁻³), respirable mass (0.06–0.6 mg m⁻³), and PM₁₀ (0.3–6.5 mg m⁻³) were measured during pouring activities. In overall; emissions from pouring activities were found to be dominated by coarser particles >300 nm. Even though the raw materials were not identified as nanomaterials by the manufacturers, handling of TiO₂ and clays resulted in release of nanometric particles to both workplace air and outdoor environment, which was confirmed by TEM analysis of indoor and stack emission samples. During the measurement period, none of the existing exposure limits in force were exceeded. Particle release to the outdoor environment varied from 6 to 20 g ton⁻¹ at concentrations between 0.6 and 9.7 mg m⁻³ of total suspended dust depending on the powder. The estimated release of TiO₂ to outdoors was 0.9 kg per year. Particle release to the environment is not expected to cause any major impact due to atmospheric dilution

Particle and gaseous contaminants from industrial scale additive manufacturing (AM) machines were studied in three different work environments. Workplaces utilized powder bed fusion, material extrusion, and binder jetting techniques with metal and polymer powders, polymer filaments, and gypsum powder, respectively. The AM processes were studied from operator’s point of view to identify exposure events and possible safety risks. Total number of particle concentrations were measured in the range of 10 nm to 300 nm from operator’s breathing zone using portable devices and in the range of 2.5 nm to 10 µm from close vicinity of the AM machines using stationary measurement devices. Gas-phase compounds were measured with photoionization, electrochemical sensors, and an active air sampling method which were eventually followed by laboratory analyses. The duration of the measurements varied from 3 to 5 days during which the manufacturing processes were practically continuous. We identified several work phases in which an operator can potentially be exposed by inhalation (pulmonary exposure) to airborne emissions. A skin exposure was also identified as a potential risk factor based on the observations made on work tasks related to the AM process. The results confirmed that nanosized particles were present in the breathing air of the workspace when the ventilation of the AM machine was inadequate. Metal powders were not measured from the workstation air thanks to the closed system and suitable risk control procedures. Still, handling of metal powders and AM materials that can act as skin irritants such as epoxy resins were found to pose a potential risk for workers. This emphasizes the importance of appropriate control measures for ventilation and material handling that should be addressed in AM operations and environment.