The goal of this paper is to introduce an adaptive load frequency control (LFC) technique for power systems. The concept of the proposed adaptive technique is built on the on-line tuning of the gain of an integral controller using Electro-Search optimization (ESO) supported by a modification called the ‘balloon effect’. The main target is to regulate the frequency of isolated and interconnected power systems. The balloon effect is designed to obtain the input/output signals of the power system plant at any moment; then, these signals are utilized to calculate the value of the open loop transfer function of the plant at the same time. This will emphatically affect the specified objective function of the ESO approach and increase its sensitivity to and effect on system difficulties such as system step load changes, parameter uncertainties and the effect of the penetrations resulting from renewable sources. Delayed time resulting from the communication process between the area and control center is considered in the dynamic model of interconnected MGs, and nonlinearities, such as governor dead bands (GDBs) and generation rate constraints (GRCs), are included in the simulation model. The simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness and success of the proposed controller tuned by the ESO approach with a balloon effect and provide better performance of frequency regulation than a fixed controller, as well as other methods such as standard Jaya and ESO methods.

This research investigates a new coordination strategy for both isolated single-area and interconnected multi-area microgrids (MGs) using a modified virtual rotor-based derivative technique supported with Jaya optimizer based on balloon effect modulation (BE). Accordingly, the main concept of BE is to assist the classic Jaya to be more sensitive and trackable in the event of disturbances, as well as to provide optimum integral gain value on the secondary frequency controller adaptively for both suggested MGs. The proposed modified virtual rotor mechanism is consisting of virtual inertia and virtual damping that are added as a tertiary controller within proposed MGs considering full participation of the inverter-based energy storage systems. The proposed virtual rotor mechanism is consisting of virtual inertia and virtual damping that are added as a tertiary controller within proposed MGs to emulate the reduction in system inertia and the enhanced damping properties. Several nonlinearities were proposed in this work such as a dead band of governor, generation rate constraints, and communication time-delay are considered within the dynamic model of the suggested MGs. In addition, the proposed design of multi-area MGs takes the interval time-varying communication delays into account for stability conditions. In this study, A comparative study using unimodal (i.e., Sphere) and multimodal (i.e., Rastrigin) benchmark test functions are conducted to validate the proposed direct adaptive Jaya-based BE. Furthermore, Wilcoxon’s rank-signed non-parametric statistical test using a pairwise comparison was performed at a 5 % risk level to judge whether the proposed algorithm output varies from those of the other algorithms in a statistically significant manner. Thence, the superiority and effectiveness of the proposed method have also been verified against a variety of other metaheuristics optimization techniques, including classic electro-search, particle swarm, multi-objective seagull, and Jaya optimizers. In addition, an operative performance is assessed against the conventional integral controller, coefficient diagram method, and classic Jaya with/without virtual inertia. The final findings emphasize the superiority of the proposed direct adaptive Jaya-based BE supported by a modified virtual rotor and state better performance and stability compared to existing controllers.

The operation of the system’s frequency can be strongly impacted by load change, solar irradiation, wind disturbance, and system parametric uncertainty. In this paper, the application of an adaptive controller based on a hybrid Jaya-Balloon optimizer (JBO) for frequency oscillation mitigation in a single area smart μG system is studied. The proposed adaptive control approach is applied to control the flexible loads such as HPs and EVs by using the JBO which efficiently controls the system frequency. The suggested technique uses the power balance equation to provide a dynamic output feedback controller. The main target is to regulate the frequency and power of an islanded single area μG powered by a PV and a diesel generator with integrations of smart bidirectional loads (HPs and EVs) that are controlled by the proposed adaptive controller in presence of electrical random loads. Moreover, the JBO is designed to minimize the effect of the system load disturbance and parameter variations. For a better assessment, the proposed controller using JBO technique is compared with two other methods which are the coefficient diagram method (CDM) and adaptive one using classical the Jaya technique. In the obtained results, the frequency deviation is found as 0.0015 Hz, which is fully acceptable and in the range of the IEEE standards. The MATLAB simulation results reveal that the suggested technique has a substantial advantage over other techniques in terms of frequency stability in the face of concurrent disturbances and parameter uncertainties. The real-time simulation tests are presented using a dSPACE DS1103 connected to another PC via QUARC pid_e data acquisition card and confirmed the MATLAB simulation results.

Due to the unpredictability of the majority of green energy sources (GESs), particularly in microgrids (μGs), frequency deviations are unavoidable. These factors include solar irradiance, wind disturbances, and parametric uncertainty, all of which have a substantial impact on the system’s frequency. An adaptive load frequency control (LFC) method for power systems is suggested in this paper to mitigate the aforementioned issues. For engineering challenges, soft computing methods like the bat algorithm (BA), where it proves its effectiveness in different applications, consistently produce positive outcomes, so it is used to address the LFC issue. For online gain tuning, an integral controller using an artificial BA is utilized, and this control method is supported by a modification known as the balloon effect (BE) identifier. Stability and robustness of analysis of the suggested BA+BE scheme is investigated. The system with the proposed adaptive frequency controller is evaluated in the case of step/random load demand. In addition, high penetrations of photovoltaic (PV) sources are considered. The standard integral controller and Jaya+BE, two more optimization techniques, have been compared with the suggested BA+BE strategy. According to the results of the MATLAB simulation, the suggested technique (BA+BE) has a significant advantage over other techniques in terms of maintaining frequency stability in the presence of step/random disturbances and PV source. The suggested method successfully keeps the frequency steady over I and Jaya+BE by 61.5% and 31.25%, respectively. In order to validate the MATLAB simulation results, real-time simulation tests are given utilizing a PC and a QUARC pid_e data acquisition card.

The negative impacts of microgrids (µGs) on the load frequency highlight the importance of implementing a robust, efficient, and adaptable controller to ensure stability. This work introduces an adaptive load frequency control (LFC) for an isolated µG that includes a PV system and electric vehicles (EVs), which have a significant impact on frequency. This control utilizes a combination of sine cosine optimization (SCO) and balloon effect identifier (BEI) algorithms. The controller presented in this work transforms the LFC process into an optimization problem that is highly compatible with various random situations encountered in the control process. The suggested control method is a novel approach by utilizing SCO+BEI for adaptive LFC application, resulting in a highly efficient response. The effectiveness of the proposed adaptive controller is assessed under the conditions of 17 MW variable load, system parameters uncertainties, and installed PV systems of 6 MW. MATLAB / Simulink package is rummage-sale as a digital test environment. According to simulation results, the proposed adaptive controller succeeds in regulating the frequency and power of an islanded µG. To measure the efficiency of the proposed control scheme, a comparison between other control techniques (such as adaptive controller using Jaya+BEI and classical integral controller) is done. The findings of the studied scenarios assured that the not compulsory control method using (SCO+BEI) has an obvious superiority over other control methods in terms of frequency solidity in case of random load instabilities and parameter uncertainties. Finally, it can be said that the proposed controller can better ensure the safe operation of the µGs.