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Susan E. Lee
Civil Engineering/College of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

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Journal article
Published: 16 March 2018 in The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment
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This paper describes the research that underpins the development of EATS (the Environmental Assessment Tool for School meals), a life cycle-based decision support tool for local authorities and their contractors responsible for providing catering services to schools. The purpose of this tool is to quantify the carbon footprint (CF) and water footprint (WF) of the meals served in order to identify hotspot meals and ingredients, and suggest simple, yet transformative, reduction measures. A case study is used to test the tool, comparing the impacts of 34 school meal recipes. The tool utilises secondary data to calculate values of CF and WF for a school meal from cradle to plate. This includes three phases: (1) food production, (2) transport of each ingredient to a generic school kitchen in the UK, and (3) meal preparation. Considerations for waste along the supply chain are included. After testing the tool against a set of nutritionally compliant meals, a sensitivity analysis was performed to investigate the influence of the origin and seasonality of the ingredients, transport mode and cooking appliances used on the final results. The results of the case study show the predominance of the production phase in the overall carbon footprint and that there is a strong tendency towards lower impacts for meat-free meals; however, this is not always the case, for instance some of the chicken-based meals present lower impacts than vegetarian meals rich in dairy ingredients. The sensitivity analysis performed on one of the meals shows that the highest value of CF is obtained when the horticultural products are out of season and produced in heated greenhouses, whilst the highest value of WF is obtained when the origin of the ingredients is unknown and the global average values of WF are used in the analysis; this defines a crucial data need if accurate analyses are to be uniformly possible. This article focuses on the potential offered by the public food sector for a transformative reduction in the environmental impact of urban food consumption. The results presented prove that careful menu planning and procurement choices can considerably reduce the overall environmental impact of the service provided without compromising quality or variety. This research thus supports those responsible for making these decisions via a user-friendly tool based on robust scientific evidence.

ACS Style

Valeria De Laurentiis; Dexter V. L. Hunt; Susan E. Lee; Christopher D. F. Rogers. EATS: a life cycle-based decision support tool for local authorities and school caterers. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2018, 24, 1222 -1238.

AMA Style

Valeria De Laurentiis, Dexter V. L. Hunt, Susan E. Lee, Christopher D. F. Rogers. EATS: a life cycle-based decision support tool for local authorities and school caterers. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 2018; 24 (7):1222-1238.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Valeria De Laurentiis; Dexter V. L. Hunt; Susan E. Lee; Christopher D. F. Rogers. 2018. "EATS: a life cycle-based decision support tool for local authorities and school caterers." The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 24, no. 7: 1222-1238.

Journal article
Published: 01 November 2017 in Cities
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ACS Style

Joanne M. Leach; Susan E. Lee; Dexter V.L. Hunt; Christopher Rogers. Improving city-scale measures of livable sustainability: A study of urban measurement and assessment through application to the city of Birmingham, UK. Cities 2017, 71, 80 -87.

AMA Style

Joanne M. Leach, Susan E. Lee, Dexter V.L. Hunt, Christopher Rogers. Improving city-scale measures of livable sustainability: A study of urban measurement and assessment through application to the city of Birmingham, UK. Cities. 2017; 71 ():80-87.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Joanne M. Leach; Susan E. Lee; Dexter V.L. Hunt; Christopher Rogers. 2017. "Improving city-scale measures of livable sustainability: A study of urban measurement and assessment through application to the city of Birmingham, UK." Cities 71, no. : 80-87.

Data article
Published: 13 October 2017 in Data in Brief
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This data article presents the UK City LIFE1 data set for the city of Birmingham, UK. UK City LIFE1 is a new, comprehensive and holistic method for measuring the livable sustainability performance of UK cities. The Birmingham data set comprises 346 indicators structured simultaneously (1) within a four-tier, outcome-based framework in order to aid in their interpretation (e.g., promote healthy living and healthy long lives, minimize energy use, uncouple economic vitality from CO2 emissions) and (2) thematically in order to complement government and disciplinary siloes (e.g., health, energy, economy, climate change). Birmingham data for the indicators are presented within an Excel spreadsheet with their type, units, geographic area, year, source, link to secondary data files, data collection method, data availability and any relevant calculations and notes. This paper provides a detailed description of UK city LIFE1 in order to enable comparable data sets to be produced for other UK cities. The Birmingham data set is made publically available at http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/3040/ to facilitate this and to enable further analyses. The UK City LIFE1 Birmingham data set has been used to understand what is known and what is not known about the livable sustainability performance of the city and to inform how Birmingham City Council can take action now to improve its understanding and its performance into the future (see “Improving city-scale measures of livable sustainability: A study of urban measurement and assessment through application to the city of Birmingham, UK” Leach et al. [2]).

ACS Style

Joanne M. Leach; Susan E. Lee; Christopher T. Boyko; Claire J. Coulton; Rachel Cooper; Nicholas Smith; Hélène Joffe; Milena Büchs; James D. Hale; Jonathan P. Sadler; Peter A. Braithwaite; Luke S. Blunden; Valeria De Laurentiis; Dexter V.L. Hunt; AbuBakr S. Bahaj; Katie Barnes; Christopher J. Bouch; Leonidas Bourikas; Marianna Cavada; Andrew Chilvers; Stephen J. Clune; Brian Collins; Ellie Cosgrave; Nick Dunn; Jane Falkingham; Patrick James; Corina Kwami; Martin Locret-Collet; Francesca Medda; Adriana Ortegon; Serena Pollastri; Cosmin Popan; Katerina Psarikidou; Nick Tyler; John Urry; Yue Wu; Victoria Zeeb; Chris D.F. Rogers. Dataset of the livability performance of the city of Birmingham, UK, as measured by its citizen wellbeing, resource security, resource efficiency and carbon emissions. Data in Brief 2017, 15, 691 -695.

AMA Style

Joanne M. Leach, Susan E. Lee, Christopher T. Boyko, Claire J. Coulton, Rachel Cooper, Nicholas Smith, Hélène Joffe, Milena Büchs, James D. Hale, Jonathan P. Sadler, Peter A. Braithwaite, Luke S. Blunden, Valeria De Laurentiis, Dexter V.L. Hunt, AbuBakr S. Bahaj, Katie Barnes, Christopher J. Bouch, Leonidas Bourikas, Marianna Cavada, Andrew Chilvers, Stephen J. Clune, Brian Collins, Ellie Cosgrave, Nick Dunn, Jane Falkingham, Patrick James, Corina Kwami, Martin Locret-Collet, Francesca Medda, Adriana Ortegon, Serena Pollastri, Cosmin Popan, Katerina Psarikidou, Nick Tyler, John Urry, Yue Wu, Victoria Zeeb, Chris D.F. Rogers. Dataset of the livability performance of the city of Birmingham, UK, as measured by its citizen wellbeing, resource security, resource efficiency and carbon emissions. Data in Brief. 2017; 15 ():691-695.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Joanne M. Leach; Susan E. Lee; Christopher T. Boyko; Claire J. Coulton; Rachel Cooper; Nicholas Smith; Hélène Joffe; Milena Büchs; James D. Hale; Jonathan P. Sadler; Peter A. Braithwaite; Luke S. Blunden; Valeria De Laurentiis; Dexter V.L. Hunt; AbuBakr S. Bahaj; Katie Barnes; Christopher J. Bouch; Leonidas Bourikas; Marianna Cavada; Andrew Chilvers; Stephen J. Clune; Brian Collins; Ellie Cosgrave; Nick Dunn; Jane Falkingham; Patrick James; Corina Kwami; Martin Locret-Collet; Francesca Medda; Adriana Ortegon; Serena Pollastri; Cosmin Popan; Katerina Psarikidou; Nick Tyler; John Urry; Yue Wu; Victoria Zeeb; Chris D.F. Rogers. 2017. "Dataset of the livability performance of the city of Birmingham, UK, as measured by its citizen wellbeing, resource security, resource efficiency and carbon emissions." Data in Brief 15, no. : 691-695.

Article
Published: 26 September 2017 in Meteorological Applications
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The 1 July 2015 was the hottest July day on record (37.5 °C recorded at Heathrow Airport) in the United Kingdom (UK), and record-breaking temperatures were recorded across England. This short-duration heatwave (30 June–1 July 2015) affected railway services both directly, by causing asset failure or malfunction, and indirectly, by necessitating the use of emergency speed restrictions (ESRs) to reduce the likelihood of track buckling. Incidents caused by heat and lightning were recorded across the British railway network, and knock-on delays affected rail travel in regions where extreme weather did not have a direct impact. Over both days there were more than 220 000 delay-minutes. Many of these could not be attributed specifically to the weather, but 23 700 delay-minutes were due to emergency speed restrictions (ESRs) as a preventative measure to reduce the likelihood of rail buckling, 12 800 to heat and 4000 to lightning incidents. All regions experienced more than twice the daily average delay-minutes on one or both days, costing an estimated £16 million to the national economy. Incidents on critical routes (e.g. London North Eastern connecting London and Scotland) or near critical transport nodes such as Manchester Piccadilly caused the longest delays. Under future warmer climatic conditions, heatwaves and extreme temperatures are projected to occur more frequently and the railway operator has several measures to adapt or update existing infrastructure in order to reduce the impact of heat and lightning. Alternative solutions such as low-cost sensors for real-time condition monitoring or green infrastructure for increased asset resilience should also be considered.

ACS Style

Emma Ferranti; Lee Chapman; Susan Lee; David Jaroszweski; Caroline Lowe; Steve McCulloch; Andrew Quinn. The hottest July day on the railway network: insights and thoughts for the future. Meteorological Applications 2017, 25, 195 -208.

AMA Style

Emma Ferranti, Lee Chapman, Susan Lee, David Jaroszweski, Caroline Lowe, Steve McCulloch, Andrew Quinn. The hottest July day on the railway network: insights and thoughts for the future. Meteorological Applications. 2017; 25 (2):195-208.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Emma Ferranti; Lee Chapman; Susan Lee; David Jaroszweski; Caroline Lowe; Steve McCulloch; Andrew Quinn. 2017. "The hottest July day on the railway network: insights and thoughts for the future." Meteorological Applications 25, no. 2: 195-208.

Journal article
Published: 29 April 2017 in Sustainability
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Recently, much of the literature on sharing in cities has focused on the sharing economy, in which people use online platforms to share underutilized assets in the marketplace. This view of sharing is too narrow for cities, as it neglects the myriad of ways, reasons, and scales in which citizens share in urban environments. Research presented here by the Liveable Cities team in the form of participant workshops in Lancaster and Birmingham, UK, suggests that a broader approach to understanding sharing in cities is essential. The research also highlighted tools and methods that may be used to help to identify sharing in communities. The paper ends with advice to city stakeholders, such as policymakers, urban planners, and urban designers, who are considering how to enhance sustainability in cities through sharing.

ACS Style

Christopher T. Boyko; Stephen J. Clune; Rachel F. D. Cooper; Claire J. Coulton; Nick S. Dunn; Serena Pollastri; Joanne M. Leach; Christopher J. Bouch; Mariana Cavada; Valeria De Laurentiis; Mike Goodfellow-Smith; James D. Hale; Dan K. G. Hunt; Susan E. Lee; Martin Locret-Collet; Jon P. Sadler; Jonathan Ward; Christopher D. F. Rogers; Cosmin Popan; Katerina Psarikidou; John Urry; Luke S. Blunden; Leonidas Bourikas; Milena Büchs; Jane Falkingham; Mikey Harper; Patrick A. B. James; Mamusu Kamanda; Tatiana Sanches; Philip Turner; Phil Y. Wu; AbuBakr S. Bahaj; Adriana Ortegon; Katie Barnes; Ellie Cosgrave; Paul Honeybone; Helene Joffe; Corina Kwami; Victoria Zeeb; Brian Collins; Nick Tyler. How Sharing Can Contribute to More Sustainable Cities. Sustainability 2017, 9, 701 .

AMA Style

Christopher T. Boyko, Stephen J. Clune, Rachel F. D. Cooper, Claire J. Coulton, Nick S. Dunn, Serena Pollastri, Joanne M. Leach, Christopher J. Bouch, Mariana Cavada, Valeria De Laurentiis, Mike Goodfellow-Smith, James D. Hale, Dan K. G. Hunt, Susan E. Lee, Martin Locret-Collet, Jon P. Sadler, Jonathan Ward, Christopher D. F. Rogers, Cosmin Popan, Katerina Psarikidou, John Urry, Luke S. Blunden, Leonidas Bourikas, Milena Büchs, Jane Falkingham, Mikey Harper, Patrick A. B. James, Mamusu Kamanda, Tatiana Sanches, Philip Turner, Phil Y. Wu, AbuBakr S. Bahaj, Adriana Ortegon, Katie Barnes, Ellie Cosgrave, Paul Honeybone, Helene Joffe, Corina Kwami, Victoria Zeeb, Brian Collins, Nick Tyler. How Sharing Can Contribute to More Sustainable Cities. Sustainability. 2017; 9 (5):701.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Christopher T. Boyko; Stephen J. Clune; Rachel F. D. Cooper; Claire J. Coulton; Nick S. Dunn; Serena Pollastri; Joanne M. Leach; Christopher J. Bouch; Mariana Cavada; Valeria De Laurentiis; Mike Goodfellow-Smith; James D. Hale; Dan K. G. Hunt; Susan E. Lee; Martin Locret-Collet; Jon P. Sadler; Jonathan Ward; Christopher D. F. Rogers; Cosmin Popan; Katerina Psarikidou; John Urry; Luke S. Blunden; Leonidas Bourikas; Milena Büchs; Jane Falkingham; Mikey Harper; Patrick A. B. James; Mamusu Kamanda; Tatiana Sanches; Philip Turner; Phil Y. Wu; AbuBakr S. Bahaj; Adriana Ortegon; Katie Barnes; Ellie Cosgrave; Paul Honeybone; Helene Joffe; Corina Kwami; Victoria Zeeb; Brian Collins; Nick Tyler. 2017. "How Sharing Can Contribute to More Sustainable Cities." Sustainability 9, no. 5: 701.

Journal article
Published: 01 November 2016 in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
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Energy is a vital resource in modern life. With increasingly limited availability of traditional energy resources, e.g., oil, coal and nuclear, together with environmental concerns, there is raised awareness that energy needs to be both used more efficiently and generated in line with thinking on sustainability. Ready access to ‘clean’ energy is essential if we wish to maintain our current way of life without compromising our wellbeing or the carrying capacity of the planet. This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities in energy supply and demand between two very different cities. Masdar City, founded in 2008, is a dynamic new Middle-Eastern city being built in a desert environment. Its aim is to be the most sustainable city in the world and offers an exciting opportunity to provide unique insights into the application of different innovative technologies as ‘new-build’ within an urban environment. Birmingham is a well-established post-industrial city that has evolved over fourteen hundred years. It was one of the fastest growing cities in 19th century England (Popp and Wilson, 2009) [1]. To do this a material flow analysis approach has been adopted to provide a framework for the study. The energy-related opportunities and mutual benefits that each city can gain from the experiences of the other are explored and five emergent issues are identified: innovation and experimentation, lock-in, balance, resilience and governance. This work shows how a greater understanding of common issues can lead to more sustainable, resilient and robust cities, able to face the challenges of the next 50 years

ACS Style

Susan Lee; Peter Braithwaite; Joanne Leach; Chris D.F. Rogers. A comparison of energy systems in Birmingham, UK, with Masdar City, an embryonic city in Abu Dhabi Emirate. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2016, 65, 1299 -1309.

AMA Style

Susan Lee, Peter Braithwaite, Joanne Leach, Chris D.F. Rogers. A comparison of energy systems in Birmingham, UK, with Masdar City, an embryonic city in Abu Dhabi Emirate. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2016; 65 ():1299-1309.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Susan Lee; Peter Braithwaite; Joanne Leach; Chris D.F. Rogers. 2016. "A comparison of energy systems in Birmingham, UK, with Masdar City, an embryonic city in Abu Dhabi Emirate." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65, no. : 1299-1309.

Letter
Published: 01 April 2016 in Environmental Research Letters
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The global drive to produce low-carbon energy has resulted in an unprecedented deployment of onshore wind turbines, representing a significant land use change for wind energy generation with uncertain consequences for local climatic conditions and the regulation of ecosystem processes. Here, we present high-resolution data from a wind farm collected during operational and idle periods that shows the wind farm affected several measures of ground-level climate. Specifically, we discovered that operational wind turbines raised air temperature by 0.18 °C and absolute humidity (AH) by 0.03 g m−3 during the night, and increased the variability in air, surface and soil temperature throughout the diurnal cycle. Further, the microclimatic influence of turbines on air temperature and AH decreased logarithmically with distance from the nearest turbine. These effects on ground-level microclimate, including soil temperature, have uncertain implications for biogeochemical processes and ecosystem carbon cycling, including soil carbon stocks. Consequently, understanding needs to be improved to determine the overall carbon balance of wind energy.

ACS Style

Alona Armstrong; Ralph R Burton; Susan Lee; Stephen Mobbs; Nicholas Ostle; Victoria Smith; Susan Waldron; Jeanette Whitaker. Ground-level climate at a peatland wind farm in Scotland is affected by wind turbine operation. Environmental Research Letters 2016, 11, 044024 .

AMA Style

Alona Armstrong, Ralph R Burton, Susan Lee, Stephen Mobbs, Nicholas Ostle, Victoria Smith, Susan Waldron, Jeanette Whitaker. Ground-level climate at a peatland wind farm in Scotland is affected by wind turbine operation. Environmental Research Letters. 2016; 11 (4):044024.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Alona Armstrong; Ralph R Burton; Susan Lee; Stephen Mobbs; Nicholas Ostle; Victoria Smith; Susan Waldron; Jeanette Whitaker. 2016. "Ground-level climate at a peatland wind farm in Scotland is affected by wind turbine operation." Environmental Research Letters 11, no. 4: 044024.

Journal article
Published: 01 March 2016 in Sustainability
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Cities are dependent on their hinterlands for their function and survival. They provide resources such as people, materials, water, food and energy, as well as areas for waste disposal. Over the last 50 years, commerce and trade has become increasingly global with resources sourced from further afield often due to cheap labour costs, better transportation and a plentiful supply of energy and raw materials. However, the use and transportation of resources is becoming increasingly unsustainable as the global population increases, raw materials become increasing scarce, and energy costs rise. This paper builds on research undertaken in the Liveable Cities Programme on the resource flows of Birmingham, UK. It investigates how people, material, and food flows interact within regional, national, and international hinterlands through road and rail transportation and assesses their sustainability across all three pillars (economic, social, and environmental). The type and weight of goods is highlighted together with their costs and energy used. For a city to move with greatest effect towards sustainability it needs to: (i) source as much as it can locally, to minimise transportation and energy costs; (ii) adopt such principles as the “circular economy”; and (iii) provide clean and efficient means to move people, especially public transportation.

ACS Style

Susan E. Lee; Andrew D. Quinn; Chris D.F. Rogers. Advancing City Sustainability via Its Systems of Flows: The Urban Metabolism of Birmingham and Its Hinterland. Sustainability 2016, 8, 220 .

AMA Style

Susan E. Lee, Andrew D. Quinn, Chris D.F. Rogers. Advancing City Sustainability via Its Systems of Flows: The Urban Metabolism of Birmingham and Its Hinterland. Sustainability. 2016; 8 (3):220.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Susan E. Lee; Andrew D. Quinn; Chris D.F. Rogers. 2016. "Advancing City Sustainability via Its Systems of Flows: The Urban Metabolism of Birmingham and Its Hinterland." Sustainability 8, no. 3: 220.

Journal article
Published: 01 January 2016 in International Journal of Complexity in Applied Science and Technology
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ACS Style

Joanne M. Leach; Peter A. Braithwaite; Susan E. Lee; Christopher J. Bouch; Dexter V.L. Hunt; Chris D.F. Rogers. Measuring urban sustainability and liveability performance: the City Analysis Methodology. International Journal of Complexity in Applied Science and Technology 2016, 1, 86 .

AMA Style

Joanne M. Leach, Peter A. Braithwaite, Susan E. Lee, Christopher J. Bouch, Dexter V.L. Hunt, Chris D.F. Rogers. Measuring urban sustainability and liveability performance: the City Analysis Methodology. International Journal of Complexity in Applied Science and Technology. 2016; 1 (1):86.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Joanne M. Leach; Peter A. Braithwaite; Susan E. Lee; Christopher J. Bouch; Dexter V.L. Hunt; Chris D.F. Rogers. 2016. "Measuring urban sustainability and liveability performance: the City Analysis Methodology." International Journal of Complexity in Applied Science and Technology 1, no. 1: 86.

Conference paper
Published: 05 November 2014 in Proceedings of The 4th World Sustainability Forum
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Well-functioning 'liveable' cities should be sustainable and their consumption of natural resources and production of waste must fit within the capacities of the local, regional and global ecosystems. It is increasingly becoming suggested that an Urban Metabolism (UM), approach could help city decision-makers (e.g. planners) take account of numerous critical influencing factors related to the inward outward flow(s) of natural resources (e.g. food, water and energy) and accumulation of waste. The paper identifies the precursory step for any UM study (Mass Flow Analysis - MFA) and applies it to a case study (Birmingham, UK) in order to show how it could contribute to the measurement, assessment and understanding of liveability, defined as 80% reduction in carbon (from 1990 levels); resource secure (an ethos of One planet living); with maintained or enhanced wellbeing. By provided focus upon an individual resource stream (i.e. water) at multiple scales (city to individual) it is shown that MFA can be used as a starting point to develop realistic and radical engineering solutions. However further work is required for it to be truly reflective of broader aspects of urban liveability.

ACS Style

Dexter Hunt; Joanne Leach; Susan Lee; Chris Bouch; Peter Braithwaite; Chris Rogers. Material Flow Analysis (MFA) for Liveable Cities. Proceedings of The 4th World Sustainability Forum 2014, 1 .

AMA Style

Dexter Hunt, Joanne Leach, Susan Lee, Chris Bouch, Peter Braithwaite, Chris Rogers. Material Flow Analysis (MFA) for Liveable Cities. Proceedings of The 4th World Sustainability Forum. 2014; ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Dexter Hunt; Joanne Leach; Susan Lee; Chris Bouch; Peter Braithwaite; Chris Rogers. 2014. "Material Flow Analysis (MFA) for Liveable Cities." Proceedings of The 4th World Sustainability Forum , no. : 1.

Research article
Published: 22 March 2012 in Building Services Engineering Research and Technology
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This article presents a methodology for determining the internal temperatures of a post-1919 mid-terrace house for the present-day and a future (2050) climate. The Meteorological Office, Hadley Centre regional climate model has been run with urban parameterisation and an improved land-surface scheme with urban heat island forcing and a weather generator to quantify the effect of the urban heat island. Manchester city dry-bulb air temperatures are shown to be of the order of 4 K higher than those for the present-day under a UKCP09 medium emissions scenario. Extreme summer temperature data (99% percentile) are used to produce a cooling design day for use in a building simulation program.1 Loft and wall insulation decreases internal air temperatures by up to 17% and low e glazing with louvres by up to 8%. Internal temperatures for a 2050 climate will exceed existing Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers thresholds. Practical application: Climate change is an important subject for both the building industry and local authorities. Climate change scenarios produced by the Hadley Centre General Circulation Models (GCM) have been downscaled to the local level for use in a building simulation model.1 This article demonstrates a technique that enables data from a GCM to be used within a building simulation program1 for an urban environment. It also examines the implications of the combined effect of the urban heat island and climate change on the adaptation options available to designers and planners for existing and future buildings.

ACS Style

Susan E Lee; Geoff J Levermore. Simulating urban heat island effects with climate change on a Manchester house. Building Services Engineering Research and Technology 2012, 34, 203 -221.

AMA Style

Susan E Lee, Geoff J Levermore. Simulating urban heat island effects with climate change on a Manchester house. Building Services Engineering Research and Technology. 2012; 34 (2):203-221.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Susan E Lee; Geoff J Levermore. 2012. "Simulating urban heat island effects with climate change on a Manchester house." Building Services Engineering Research and Technology 34, no. 2: 203-221.

Book chapter
Published: 01 January 2001 in Terrestrial Global Productivity
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ACS Style

F. Ian Woodward; Mark R. Lomas; Susan E. Lee. Predicting the Future Productivity and Distribution of Global Terrestrial Vegetation. Terrestrial Global Productivity 2001, 521 -541.

AMA Style

F. Ian Woodward, Mark R. Lomas, Susan E. Lee. Predicting the Future Productivity and Distribution of Global Terrestrial Vegetation. Terrestrial Global Productivity. 2001; ():521-541.

Chicago/Turabian Style

F. Ian Woodward; Mark R. Lomas; Susan E. Lee. 2001. "Predicting the Future Productivity and Distribution of Global Terrestrial Vegetation." Terrestrial Global Productivity , no. : 521-541.

Journal article
Published: 15 March 2000 in International Journal of Climatology
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Many general circulation models (GCMs) predict that high latitude environments will experience substantial warming over the next 100 years, which will be particularly pronounced during the winter months. Precipitation is also expected to increase but there is uncertainty as to the amount and spatial variation. The flora and fauna of the arctic and subarctic regions, together with indigenous people, such as the Saami, are particularly vunerable to rising temperatures and changing precipitation. Mean monthly temperature and precipitation data were examined for the last 100 years for northern Finland. These data were further analysed for the first and second half of the 20th century. There was no discernible warming trend between 1876 and 1993, but a significant annual warming (r=0.344, ρ<0.05) occurred in the period 1901–1945, together with a significant summer warming (r=0.381, ρ<0.05). Warming has occurred consistently in May and June over the last 100 years and there appears to be a current (i.e. post 1990) annual trend, mostly due to winter warming. The greatest temperature anomaly increase for the period 1901–1945 was in the winter months (+0.72°C). The degree of temperature variation in the winter is greater than in the summer and has risen from 3.98°C for December in the period 1901–1945 to 4.37°C in the period 1946–1990. This is attributed to the recent high variability in the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) Index. Annual precipitation has increased significantly during the period 1880–1993. The period 1946–1990 was wetter than 1901–1945, with greater variability particularly in the summer months, which contribute most to the annual precipitation in Lapland. Copyright © 2000 Royal Meteorological Society

ACS Style

Susan Lee; M.C. Press; J.A. Lee. Observed climate variations during the last 100 years in Lapland, northern Finland. International Journal of Climatology 2000, 20, 329 -346.

AMA Style

Susan Lee, M.C. Press, J.A. Lee. Observed climate variations during the last 100 years in Lapland, northern Finland. International Journal of Climatology. 2000; 20 (3):329-346.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Susan Lee; M.C. Press; J.A. Lee. 2000. "Observed climate variations during the last 100 years in Lapland, northern Finland." International Journal of Climatology 20, no. 3: 329-346.

Journal article
Published: 01 June 1997 in Nature
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ACS Style

Richard A. Betts; Peter Cox; Susan Lee; F. Ian Woodward. Contrasting physiological and structural vegetation feedbacks in climate change simulations. Nature 1997, 387, 796 -799.

AMA Style

Richard A. Betts, Peter Cox, Susan Lee, F. Ian Woodward. Contrasting physiological and structural vegetation feedbacks in climate change simulations. Nature. 1997; 387 (6635):796-799.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Richard A. Betts; Peter Cox; Susan Lee; F. Ian Woodward. 1997. "Contrasting physiological and structural vegetation feedbacks in climate change simulations." Nature 387, no. 6635: 796-799.

Journal article
Published: 01 December 1995 in Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research
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A model is described for predicting the dynamic changes in the proportion of tree, shrub and grass life forms at the global scale. This model is driven by the impacts of climate, soils and CO 2 on global vegetation leaf area index and net primary productivity. The life-form model has been used to explore the influences of global warming and continued CO 2 increase on tree cover This reflects a realization from other modelling work that forested vegetation, at the global scale, exerts significant influences on climate, and so it is important to assess the potential for this feedback under climatic change. An increase in CO 2 from 350 to 560 p.p.m. is modelled to have only a small impact on tree cover, under current climate. A regionally-consistent and global increase in temperature of c .2 ˚ C and a 10 per cent increase in precipitation, but with no increase in CO 2 , indicates a significant potential for trees to spread into current shrub tundra, over a period of 50 years This could lead to regional warming, through changes in winter albedo. The effect of the CO 2 increase is most noticeable in interaction with increases in temperature (2 ˚ C) and precipitation (10 per cent). In this case the life-form model projects further increases in tree cover, particularly in areas with seasonally low periods of precipitation.

ACS Style

F. I. Woodward; S. E. Lee. Global scale forest function and distribution. Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research 1995, 68, 317 -325.

AMA Style

F. I. Woodward, S. E. Lee. Global scale forest function and distribution. Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research. 1995; 68 (4):317-325.

Chicago/Turabian Style

F. I. Woodward; S. E. Lee. 1995. "Global scale forest function and distribution." Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research 68, no. 4: 317-325.