Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumour in adults. Despite the combination of novel therapeutical approaches, it remains a deadly malignancy with an abysmal prognosis. GBM is a polymorphic tumour from both molecular and histological points of view. It consists of different malignant cells and various stromal cells, contributing to tumour initiation, progression, and treatment response. GBM’s microenvironment is multifaceted and is made up of soluble factors, extracellular matrix components, tissue-resident cell types (e.g., neurons, astrocytes, endothelial cells, pericytes, and fibroblasts) together with resident (e.g., microglia) or recruited (e.g., bone marrow-derived macrophages) immune cells. These latter constitute the so-called immune microenvironment, accounting for a substantial GBM’s tumour volume. Despite the abundance of immune cells, an intense state of tumour immunosuppression is promoted and developed; this represents the significant challenge for cancer cells’ immune-mediated destruction. Though literature data suggest that distinct GBM’s subtypes harbour differences in their microenvironment, its role in treatment response remains obscure. However, an in-depth investigation of GBM’s microenvironment may lead to novel therapeutic opportunities to improve patients’ outcomes. This review will elucidate the GBM’s microenvironment composition, highlighting the current state of the art in immunotherapy approaches. We will focus on novel strategies of active and passive immunotherapies, including vaccination, gene therapy, checkpoint blockade, and adoptive T-cell therapies.

Background/Objectives: Aortic stenosis (AS) is the most prevalent valvular heart disease in developed countries and imposes an increasing burden on aging populations. Although transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) has transformed the treatment of severe AS, current guidelines do not differentiate management based on gender. This study aimed to investigate gender-based differences in procedural complications and one-year clinical outcomes in patients treated with next-generation self-expandable TAVI devices. Methods: This retrospective, multicenter international registry included 3862 consecutive patients who received either the ACURATE neo or Evolut R/Pro valve. Patients were stratified by gender; propensity score matching (PSM) adjusted for baseline differences. The primary endpoint was a composite of all-cause mortality or stroke at one year. Secondary endpoints included major vascular complications, major or life-threatening bleeding and acute kidney injury (AKI). Results: Of 3353 patients included (64.5% female), women were older (82.3 ± 5.6 vs. 81.1 ± 6.2 years, p < 0.001) and had higher STS scores (5.2 ± 3.9 vs. 4.5 ± 3.4%, p < 0.001). In the unmatched population, major vascular complications occurred in 7.7% of females versus 4.1% of males (p < 0.001), life-threatening bleeding in 2.8% vs. 1.4% (p = 0.016) and AKI in 8.5% vs. 5.7% (p = 0.009). After PSM, the primary endpoint was more frequent in females (9.4% vs. 6.0%, p = 0.014), largely driven by stroke (2.8% vs. 1.2%, p = 0.024), while overall mortality was similar (11.3% vs. 9.5%, p = 0.264). Conclusions: Despite comparable long-term survival, female patients undergoing TAVI with self-expandable valves experience higher rates of procedural complications, notably stroke and major vascular events. These findings underscore the need for tailored procedural strategies to improve outcomes in female patients.