Durian peel (DP) is an agricultural waste that is widely used in dyes and for organic and inorganic pollutant adsorption. In this study, durian peel was acid-treated to enhance its mycotoxin adsorption efficacy. The acid-treated durian peel (ATDP) was assessed for simultaneous adsorption of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁). The structure of the ATDP was also characterized by SEM–EDS, FT–IR, a zetasizer, and a surface-area analyzer. The results indicated that ATDP exhibited the highest mycotoxin adsorption towards AFB₁ (98.4%), ZEA (98.4%), and OTA (97.3%), followed by FB₁ (86.1%) and DON (2.0%). The pH significantly affected OTA and FB₁ adsorption, whereas AFB₁ and ZEA adsorption was not affected. Toxin adsorption by ATDP was dose-dependent and increased exponentially as the ATDP dosage increased. The maximum adsorption capacity (Q_max), determined at pH 3 and pH 7, was 40.7 and 41.6 mmol kg⁻¹ for AFB₁, 15.4 and 17.3 mmol kg⁻¹ for ZEA, 46.6 and 0.6 mmol kg⁻¹ for OTA, and 28.9 and 0.1 mmol kg⁻¹ for FB₁, respectively. Interestingly, ATDP reduced the bioaccessibility of these mycotoxins after gastrointestinal digestion using an in vitro, validated, static model. The ATDP showed a more porous structure, with a larger surface area and a surface charge modification. These structural changes following acid treatment may explain the higher efficacy of ATDP in adsorbing mycotoxins. Hence, ATDP can be considered as a promising waste material for mycotoxin biosorption.

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a harmful secondary fungal metabolite, produced primarily by plant pathogenic fungi mostly belonging to the genus Fusarium. It is involved in reproductive disorders in animals since its structure is similar to the estrogen hormone. This induces precocious pubertal changes, fertility problems, and hyper estrogenic disorders. The main objectives of this study were to evaluate the ZEA removal capacity of plant-derived lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and to investigate the possible components and mechanisms involved in the removal of ZEA by physically and chemically treated plant-derived LAB. The bacterial cells were characterized using scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and the analysis of zeta potential, and hydrophobic index. Results revealed that 17 out of 33 plant-derived LAB exhibited ZEA removal from liquid medium. The percentage of removal ranged from 0.5–23% and Lactobacillus plantarum BCC 47723, isolated from wild spider flower pickle (Pag-sian-dorng), exhibited the highest removal. The alteration of proteins on L. plantarum BCC 47723 structure by Sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) treatment was positively affected on ZEA removal, whereas that of lipids on ZEA removal was negatively observed. Heat treatment influenced the higher ZEA adsorption. SEM images showed that the morphologies of modified bacterial cells were distinctly deformed and damaged when compared with untreated control. FTIR analysis indicated that the original functional groups, which included amide (C=O, C-N), carboxyl (C=O, C-O, O-H), methylene (C=C), and alcohol (O-H) groups, were not changed after ZEA adsorption. The zeta potential indicated that electrostatic interaction was not involved in the ZEA removal, while hydrophobicity was the main force to interact with ZEA. These findings can conclude that adsorption by hydrophobicity is the main mechanism for ZEA removal of plant-derived L. plantarum BCC 47723. The alteration of bacterial cell structure by heat treatment enhanced the efficiency of L. plantarum BCC 47723 for ZEA reduction. Its activity can be protected by the freeze-drying technique. Hence, plant-derived L. plantarum BCC 47723 can be considered as an organic adsorbent for ZEA reduction in food and feedstuff.

Co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins is a growing global food safety concern due to their harmful effects on humans and animals. This study developed an eco-friendly sample preparation method and an innovative multiplex microarray-based lateral flow immunoassay, using a novel portable reader for on-site simultaneous determination of five regulated mycotoxins—aflatoxin B₁, T-2 toxin, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and fumonisin B₁ in rice. The eco-friendly and ultrafast extraction procedure utilizes a bio-based solvent. Principally, the microarray signals generated through a novel luminescent organic dye were captured to quantify mycotoxin levels in samples using a portable reader installed with a user-friendly interface. The assay demonstrates accurate detection and quantification of these mycotoxins, with recoveries ranging from 77% to 127%. Detection limits ranged from 0.56 to 1.89 μg/kg, which were well below their regulatory limits, with a relative standard deviation below 25%. This analytical system provides an on-site method for detecting multiple mycotoxins in rice.

Aflatoxins (AFs) contamination of cereals is considered one of the greatest food safety concerns worldwide. Occurrence of AFs in maize, wheat, rice and sorghum is highly prevalent with each commodity accounting for more than 10% of world’s AF exposure. Their occurrence as food contaminants is also associated with huge economic losses. AFs are highly stable compounds that cannot be eliminated by regular processing of grains. Hence, prevention of AFs in food and feed is now considered more important than the subsequent interventions to mitigate the deleterious health effects of AFs in human and animals. However, the development of an effective preventive strategy hinges on a clear understanding of the underlying factors influencing AFs production. Therefore, the present review aims to highlight the most significant factors influencing AFs contamination of cereals at pre-and post-harvest stages. This is crucial for effective monitoring of critical control points and optimisation of preventive strategies in food and feed supply chains. Several intrinsic and extrinsic factors have been reported of which nutritional composition, environmental factors (temperature, water activity and relative humidity) and climate change have been identified as primary factors, while pH of the substrate, carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the gaseous environment, and agronomic and socioeconomic status are the main secondary factors promoting AFs biosynthesis in cereals. Additionally, an overview of global occurrence of AFs in cereals, with their health impacts and various preventive measures have also been highlighted.

The suitability of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) as a functional starter culture in Nham fermentation was investigated, with a focus on evaluating both its probiotic attributes and fermentation capability. L. plantarum BCC 4352 (LpbBCC4352) exhibited colony-associated antimicrobial activity against Kocuria rhizophila, L. plantarum, Latilactobacillus sakei ssp. sakei, and Pediococcus pentosaceus, as well as the zoonotic Streptococcus suis. LpbBCC4352 exhibited impressive acid (pH 2.5) and bile resistance, coupled with notable survival rates in a simulated human digestive model. In addition, the strain is able to utilize fructo-oligosaccharides in simulated human colon conditions. It also displayed robust adhesion to human colon cell monolayers (Caco-2) and gastric mucin. Furthermore, it showed a promising cholesterol reduction ability in the fermentation medium. The safety of LpbBCC4352 for human consumption was confirmed through a hemolytic activity assay and antibiotic susceptibility testing. Moreover, using LpbBCC4352 as a starter culture not only enhanced the firmness of Nham but also ensured consumer satisfaction. The overall findings emphasize the potential use of LpbBCC4352 as a safe and effective functional starter culture, particularly in the production of Nham.

Multiple mycotoxins in feed threaten animal health and food safety, demanding sustainable mitigation strategies. This study evaluated acid-modified mangosteen peel (AMP), an agricultural by-product, as a potential multi-mycotoxin adsorbent. Physicochemical characterization using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area analysis, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses demonstrated that acid modification increased surface area (1.9 to 9.03 m²/g), pore volume (0.005 to 0.027 cm³/g), and surface negativity, indicating enhanced adsorption properties. In vitro binding experiments assessed adsorption of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), zearalenone (ZEA), ochratoxin A (OTA), T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) under different pH conditions. AMP exhibited high adsorption efficiencies for AFB₁, ZEA, OTA, and T-2 toxin, particularly at pH 3, whereas DON and FB₁ showed limited binding. Adsorption behavior was dose-dependent and best described by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models. Simulated gastrointestinal digestion indicated stable binding of AFB₁ and ZEA under gastric conditions, with partial release of some toxins at neutral pH. Cytotoxicity assessment in porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC J2) showed no apparent cytotoxic effects at 0.25–1 mg/mL. Therefore, AMP demonstrated improved multi-mycotoxin adsorption compared to the untreated material and showed no apparent cytotoxic effects in vitro within the tested concentration range, indicating its potential as a promising feed additive candidate.