Moving from the scientific literature on the evaluation of environmental projects and programs, this study identifies how and under which conditions collaborations in environmentally sustainable projects are considered effective for the adaptive governance of SES. The method adopted is a systematic literature review based on the quantitative and qualitative analysis of 56 articles selected through specific queries on the SCOPUS database and published from 2004 to 2020. Results of the quantitative analysis identify conditions able to evaluate collaborations, highlighting the need to adopt a transdisciplinary approach analysing both social and ecological challenges and assessing both social and ecological results. Moreover, they suggest preferring using primary data involving multi-sector and multi-scale actors and enlarging the geographical context to the most vulnerable countries. The results of the qualitative analysis provide specific recommendations for collaborations being effective when related to communication, equity, foresight, and respect, which need to be further strengthened by all actors. Multiplicity in visions and approaches should be seen as a resource able to stimulate creativity in social arrangements and environmental practices, making collaborations in environmental projects instrumental for the effectiveness of adaptive governance of SES.

In the framework of the collaborative environmental governance and specifically of network concepts, this study makes an exploratory analysis of the EU-funded LIFE sub-programme for the Environment (LIFE-ENV) and its priority area Environment and Resource Efficiency focused on the role of networks and in particular of intermediary organizations by using Social Network Analysis (SNA). More specifically, by investigating the evolving pattern of key statistics (density, clustering coefficient, betweenness and degree centrality) related to bipartite (organisations and projects) and dynamic (eleven years) networks, we identified 3003 organisations and 1006 projects and studied how they operate by forming new relations and reorganising existing connections. Results evidence that the LIFE-ENV attests a structural coherence and a stable structure over time and it is characterised by four different structures of network components, namely isolated coordinating beneficiary, isolated components, small components and giant components. Moreover, the LIFE-ENV is not a cohesive network, due to low values of both density and clustering coefficient. Based on betweenness centrality and degree centrality measures, the LIFE-ENV sub-programme has facilitated the emergence of 4855 intermediary organisations, which equals 29.5% of the total number of coordinating and associate beneficiaries involved in the programme in the eleven years considered. Transnational cooperation in the LIFE-ENV sub-programme is characterised by a different intensity of relations: some countries (i.e. Italy, Spain and Belgium) implement transnational cooperation with multiple European countries in both the North and South of Europe, while others tend to cluster with countries in the same geographical area, and lastly East European countries have limited participation in transnational cooperation. Our analysis supports the hypothesis of a declining collective action in the LIFE-ENV sub-programme.

This study was aimed to identify intermediary organizations active in nature conservation initiatives by adopting a multi-level (ML) and network governance (NG) framework and using social network analysis (SNA). We identified 256 coordinating beneficiaries and 1090 associated beneficiaries connected through 8310 project relations and financed through the EU-funded LIFE Programme from 2014 to 2020. Our results evidence a central component of the network where organizations from Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom play a central role. In contrast, peripheral components return a framework of partnerships mainly constituted by actors of the same country (68%). Moreover, the characterization by type of actor confirms the widespread implementation of a multi-level governance approach in LIFE-Nature (NAT) projects, evidencing the significant presence of non-governmental organizations and foundations, mainly at a national level, in nature conservation initiatives. Our findings reveal that the intermediary capacity of key actors should be further reinforced, particularly toward the promotion of transnational cooperation and cross-sector alliances, by encouraging the involvement of stakeholders operating at the ground level (i.e., provincial and municipal levels).

Protected areas represent complex social‐ecological systems that require governance and management approaches that valorise and enhance positive relationships between people and nature. This study analyses the alignment between social and ecological systems to detect the social‐ecological fit of projects focused on biodiversity conservation and management. As a case study, the study analyses interactions between projects cofunded by the LIFE Programme and protected habitat types within the Natura 2000 network. Specifically, it focuses on forest habitat types because of the strict human–nature relationships characterising forest management, planning and conservation, and spatial and temporal dynamics of forests. This study uses Social Network Analysis (SNA) to analyse social–ecological relationships within Social‐Ecological Networks (SEN), aiming to verify strategies that address fit challenges in biodiversity conservation. Calculating descriptive network statistics and modelling Exponential Random Graph Models (ERGM) enables the identification of tendencies in relationships between projects, beneficiaries, and habitat types. The selection identified 85 LIFE projects implemented by 373 beneficiaries, which target 141 habitat types within 801 Natura 2000 sites. Network analysis highlights high fragmentation within partnerships, leading to spatial misfits. Target habitat types are diversified, demonstrating that LIFE projects operate within EU heterogeneous landscapes, including forests, among other habitat categories, and account for successional dynamics. The analysis detects reduced levels of collaboration between different types of beneficiaries. The results suggest further focusing on the social processes fostered by LIFE projects to ensure their long‐term sustainability and effectiveness, considering project coordination, coherence and social equity issues. The study demonstrates that the SEN approach offers a replicable, resource‐efficient methodology to assess biodiversity conservation projects' effectiveness across diverse contexts, aligning with global frameworks and providing insights through network analysis. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.