The inconsistency of phytogenic feed additives’ (PFA) effects on the livestock industry poses a risk for their use as a replacement for antibiotic growth promoters. The livestock market is being encouraged to use natural growth promotors, but information is limited about the PFA mode of action. The aim of this paper is to present the complexity of compounds present in essential oils (EOs) and factors that influence biological effects of PFA. In this paper, we highlight various controls and optimization parameters that influence the processes for the standardization of these products. The chemical composition of EOs depends on plant genetics, growth conditions, development stage at harvest, and processes of extracting active compounds. Their biological effects are further influenced by the interaction of phytochemicals and their bioavailability in the gastrointestinal tract of animals. PFA effects on animal health and production are also complex due to various EO antibiotic, antioxidant, anti-quorum sensing, anti-inflammatory, and digestive fluids stimulating activities. Research must focus on reliable methods to identify and control the quality and effects of EOs. In this study, we focused on available microencapsulation techniques of EOs to increase the bioavailability of active compounds, as well as their application in the animal feed additive industry.

The present study was designed to determine the efficacy of a novel multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent (MMDA) containing modified zeolite (Clinoptilolite), Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell walls and silymarin against the deleterious effects of Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and Ochratoxin A (OTA) in broiler chicks. A total of 160 one-day-old Ross 308^® broiler chicks were randomly allocated in four treatment groups, with four replicates, according to the following experimental design for 42 days. Group A received a basal diet; Group B received a basal diet contaminated with AFB₁ and OTA at 0.1 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg, respectively; Group C received a basal diet contaminated with AFB₁ and OTA and MMDA at 1 g/kg feed, and Group D received a basal diet contaminated with AFB₁ and OTA and MMDA at 3 g/kg feed. Results showed that ingested mycotoxins led to significant (p ≤ 0.05) reduction in body weight and feed conversion from 25 days of age, induced histopathological changes, increased the pH of the intestinal content, and altered the biochemical profile of birds with significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased aspartate aminotransferase (AST) values (p ≤ 0.05). On the other hand, the supplementation of MMDA significantly (p ≤ 0.05) improved the feed conversion ratio (FCR) during the second part of the study, diminished biochemical alterations, reduced pH in jejunal and ileal content, and E. coli counts in the caeca of birds (p ≤ 0.05). It may be concluded that the dietary supplementation of the MMDA partially ameliorated the adverse effects of AFB₁ and OTA in broilers and could be an efficient tool in a mycotoxin control program.

The present study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of the feed additive, a novel multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent (MMDA) containing modified zeolite (clinoptilolite), Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell walls, and silymarin, as detoxifiers of 0.5 mg/kg (0.5 ppm) ochratoxin A (OTA) and 1 mg/kg (1 ppm) T-2 toxin on broiler chickens. A total of 240 1-old broiler chickens (Ross 308) were randomly distributed into five different dietary treatments: (1) control (non-contaminated diet); (2) non contaminated diet + 3 g/kg of MMDA; (3) non-contaminated diet + 0.5 mg/kg OTA + 1 mg/kg T-2 toxin; (4) non-contaminated diet + 0.5 mg/kg OTA + 1 mg/kg T-2 toxin + 1 g/kg MMDA; and (5) non-contaminated diet + 0.5 mg/kg OTA + 1 g/kg T-2 toxin + 3 g/kg MMDA. The results showed that, in the starter period, from 1 to 10 days, the presence of OTA and T-2 mycotoxins reduced the consumption of feed and the growth of the broilers, and no effects of the detoxifying product were observed in the productivity of the chickens, at any of the doses tested, compared to the contaminated control (treatment 3). However, in the growing period, the same negative effect of mycotoxins was registered, but a recovery was observed in the consumption of feed and in the weight of the broilers that consumed 3 g/kg of the MMDA mycotoxin binder, reaching similar values to those of chickens fed uncontaminated control diets. The presence of mycotoxins in feed led to a reduction in the concentration of total proteins and albumin in blood compared to controls, and the presence of the detoxifying product partially reversed this effect. The breast yield of the chickens fed with mycotoxins was lower than that of the animals fed with the control feed and was not affected by the presence of the product tested, at 1 or 3 g/kg. The weight of the different organs (liver, gizzard, kidneys, or spleen), the intestinal pH, the histology of the small intestine, and oral lesions were not affected by the experimental treatments. In summary, the productive parameters and some blood and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens were impaired by the dietary presence of OTA and T-2 toxin. The tested product included at 1 or 3 g/kg feed in contaminated diets improved performance and seems to be effective in partly counteracting the deleterious effects of the tested mycotoxins.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of phytobiotic supplementation in managing coccidiosis in broiler chickens, a disease that impacts productivity. Three hundred sixty Ross-308 one-day-old chicks were assigned to five treatment groups: control negative (CN), phyto negative (PN), control infected (CI), phyto infected (PI), and salinomycin infected (SI). All diets were fed for the entire experiment duration. CN and CI groups were given a common diet, with CN remaining uninfected and CI exposed to Eimeria spp., while PN and PI groups received a phytobiotic supplement containing essential oils, saponins, and tannins (with PI challenged by Eimeria spp.), and SI received salinomycin post-infection. All infected groups were challenged on day 14 with Eimeria acervulina, E. maxima, and E. tenella. By day 21, PN had the highest body weight (744.9 g). Body weight gain (BWG) was highest in CN and PN from days 14–35, while CI consistently showed the lowest BWG. PI demonstrated significantly lower oocyst counts than CI, outperforming even SI by day 7, and showed milder intestinal lesions. A high anticoccidial index (ACI) of 188.45 was observed in PI, close to uninfected groups, while SI achieved a partially effective ACI of 136.91. Overall, PN and PI exhibited improved performance and intestinal health, highlighting the potential of phytobiotics in coccidiosis management for broilers.

Mycotoxin contamination in maize poses significant food and feed safety risks, particularly in regions with variable climatic conditions like Serbia. This study investigated the occurrence of regulated mycotoxins in maize harvested across the Republic of Serbia from 2021 to 2023, emphasizing the impact of climatic factors. A total of 548 samples of unprocessed maize grains were analysed for the presence of key mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and trichothecenes type A (T-2 and HT-2 toxins), using validated analytical methods. The results revealed high contamination frequencies, with aflatoxins and fumonisins being the most prevalent. The results revealed substantial temporal variability and frequent co-contamination of mycotoxins. Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) was the most concerning contaminant, with 73.2% of the samples in 2022 exceeding the European regulatory limit for human consumption (5 µg/kg) for un processed maize grains, reaching peak concentrations of 527 µg/kg, which is 105.4 times higher than the allowed limit. For animal feed, the limit of 20 µg/kg was exceeded in 40.5% of the samples, with the highest concentration being 26.4 times greater than the maximum allowable level. In 2021, the non-compliance rates for AFB₁ in food and feed were 8.3% and 2.3%, respectively, while in 2023, they were 23.2% and 12.2%, respectively. Fumonisins contamination was also high, particularly in 2021, with fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) detected in 87.1% of samples and average concentrations reaching 4532 µg/kg. Although levels decreased in 2023 (70.7% occurrence, average 885 µg/kg), contamination remained significant. Deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination was consistently high (>70% of samples), with peak concentrations of 606 µg/kg recorded in 2021. Zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin A (OTA) occurred less frequently, but ZEN levels peaked in 2022 at 357.6 µg/kg, which is above the regulatory limit of 350 µg/kg for food. Trichothecenes (HT-2 and T-2 toxins) were detected sporadically, with concentrations well below critical thresholds. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins was frequent, with significant mixtures detected, particularly between aflatoxins and fumonisins, as well as other fusarial toxins. The analysis demonstrated that temperature, humidity, and rainfall during both the growing and harvest seasons strongly influenced mycotoxin levels, with the most severe contamination occurring under specific climatic conditions. Notably, the highest mycotoxin levels, like aflatoxins, were linked to warmer temperatures and lower rainfall. The high non-compliance rates for aflatoxins and fumonisins and co-contamination pose significant food and feed safety risks. From a public health perspective, chronic exposure to contaminated maize increases the likelihood of carcinogenesis and reproductive disorders. Reduced productivity and bioaccumulation in animal tissues/products represent serious economic and safety concerns for livestock. This study provides insights into the potential risks to food and feed safety and the need for enhanced regulatory frameworks, continuous monitoring, and mitigation strategies in Serbia as well as other geographical regions.

The aim of our study was to determine the efficacy of three different adsorbents, inorganic (modified zeolite), organic (esterified glucomannans) and mixed (inorganic and organic components, with the addition of enzymes), in protecting broilers from the toxic effects of ochratoxin A in feed. Broilers were fed diets containing 2 mg/kg of ochratoxin A (OTA) and supplemented with adsorbents at the recommended concentration of 2 g/kg for 21 days. The presence of OTA led to a notable reduction in body weight, lower weight gain, increased feed conversion and induced histopathological changes in the liver and kidneys. The presence of inorganic, organic and mixed adsorbents in contaminated feed only partially reduced the negative effects of OTA on the broiler performances. Broilers that were fed with adsorbent-supplemented feed reached higher body weight (17.96%, 19.09% and 13.59%), compared to the group that received only OTA. The presence of adsorbents partially alleviated the reduction in feed consumption (22.68%, 12.91% and 10.59%), and a similar effect was observed with feed conversion. The applied adsorbents have also reduced the intensity of histopathological changes caused by OTA; however, they were not able to prevent their onset. After the withdrawal of the toxin and adsorbents from the feed (21–42 days), all previously observed disturbances in broilers were reduced, but more remarkably in broilers fed with adsorbents.