Compaction and rutting on forest soils are consequences of harvesting operations. The traditional methods used to investigate these consequences are time consuming and unable to represent the entire longitudinal profile for a forest trail. New methods based on photogrammetry have been developed. The overall objective was to compare photogrammetry and traditional methods (e.g. cone penetrometer, manual rut depth measurements, bulk density and porosity) used for the evaluation of soil compaction and rutting (i.e. depth and rut volume) after multiple passes of a loaded forwarder using two different tyre pressure levels. The comparison of photogrammetric versus manually measured profiles resulted in R2 0.93. Both tyre inflation pressure and number of passes had effect on soil disturbance. The rut volumes on 100 m long trails after 60 passes were 8.48 and 5.74 m³ for tire pressures of 300 and 150 kPa, respectively. Increased rut volume correlated positively with increased soil compaction and decreased soil porosity. Structure-from-motion photogrammetry is an accurate method for informing the creation of high-resolution digital evolution models and for the morphological description of forest soil disturbance after forest logging. However, a problem with photogrammetry is object reflection (grass, logging residues and water) that in some cases influence the accuracy of the method.

Intensive forestry operations may cause soil compaction, plastic soil disturbances and rutting, which are responsible for undesirable effects on soils, vegetation and water bodies. Despite the numerous studies aimed to identify the main factors affecting soil damages, it still remains unclear whether wood extraction methods and driving direction (uphill or downhill) may affect the impacts of forest machines. This research analyses soil compaction and soil penetration resistance as well as rutting from forwarding and skidding using the same farm tractor in up- and downhill wood extraction. Rutting was estimated by 3D soil reconstruction derived by portable laser scanning (PLS) and close-range photogrammetry using structure for motion (SfM). Our findings showed that the direction of extraction did not affect soil damage severity during forwarding on a 25% slope. On the contrary, in order to reduce soil compaction, downhill skidding is preferable to uphill skidding. The results showed that the pressure on the ground caused by vehicles can be distributed horizontally, thus affecting also the soil between the wheel tracks. The soil bulk density inside the tracks after 10 forwarding passes increased by 40% and with 23% between the wheel tracks. The soil displacement in skidding trails (7.36 m³ per 100 m of trail) was significantly higher than in forwarding (1.68 m³ per 100 m of trail). The rutting estimation showed no significant difference between the PLS and SfM methods, even comparing the two digital surface models (DSMs) obtained, even if photogrammetry was preferred for technical and practical reasons.

Urban ecosystems are increasingly shaped by multiple environmental stressors, which may threaten both biodiversity and human well-being. We summarised the current knowledge on the ecological and social consequences of seven major urban pressures: air pollution, freshwater degradation, biological invasions, noise pollution, habitat fragmentation, soil pollution and climate crisis. Air and soil pollution, largely driven by traffic and industrial activities, compromises vegetation functions, reduces ecosystem services, and affects human health. Urban freshwater systems face contamination from stormwater runoff, wastewater, and microplastics, leading to biodiversity loss, altered ecosystem processes, and reduced water availability. Biological invasions, facilitated by human activities and habitat disturbances, reshape ecological communities, outcompete native species, and impose socio-economic costs, while management requires integrated monitoring and citizen engagement. Noise pollution disrupts animal communication, alters species distributions, and poses significant risks to human physical and mental health. Simultaneously, habitat fragmentation and loss reduce ecological connectivity, impair pollination and dispersal processes, and heighten extinction risks for both plants and animals. Collectively, these stressors interact synergistically, amplifying ecological degradation and exacerbating health and social inequalities in urban populations. The cumulative impacts highlight the need for systemic and adaptive approaches to urban planning that integrate biodiversity conservation, public health, and social equity. Nature-based solutions, ecological restoration, technological innovation, and participatory governance emerge as promising strategies to enhance urban resilience. Furthermore, fostering citizen science initiatives can strengthen monitoring capacity and create community ownership of sustainable urban environments. Addressing the combined pressures of urban environmental stressors is thus pivotal for building cities that are ecologically robust, socially inclusive, and capable of coping with the challenges of the climate crisis and global urbanization.

Even at a well-managed harvesting site, vehicle trafficking occurs on at least 12% of the area and might cause ruts and compaction. The use of drones for inventory and mapping in forestry is still a new method. The purpose of this study was to develop a method for measuring the size and depth of wheel ruts caused by forest machines in harvested areas, using drones and Structure from Motion photogrammetry. In order to investigate the accuracy of drone photogrammetry, measurements from flight altitudes of 60 m and 120 m above ground level were compared with manual measurements. The same methods were used at a control site on farm land, taking into account the rut depth and the location of the sample surface (close to trees or in a fully open area). No statistically significant differences were found between manual measurements and remote measurements from 60 m or 120 m altitude at the harvesting site (R² 0.77–0.83). At the control site, an underestimation of 2.2 cm of the rut depth was found for remote measurements made from 120 m altitude. The data derived from drone images were able to reproduce the 3D model of surface features, such as bulges and ruts; these measurements were considered to be equivalent to manual measurements. For practical applications, a post-harvest survey using drones could contribute to verifying compliance with international forest certification standards or by private contractors to evaluate rut formation on their harvest sites.