Satellite data provide the only viable means for extensive monitoring of remote and large freshwater systems, such as the Amazon floodplain lakes. However, an accurate atmospheric correction is required to retrieve water constituents based on surface water reflectance ( ${\mathrm{R}}_{\mathrm{W}}$ ). In this paper, we assessed three atmospheric correction methods (Second Simulation of a Satellite Signal in the Solar Spectrum (6SV), ACOLITE and Sen2Cor) applied to an image acquired by the MultiSpectral Instrument (MSI) on-board of the European Space Agency’s Sentinel-2A platform using concurrent in-situ measurements over four Amazon floodplain lakes in Brazil. In addition, we evaluated the correction of forest adjacency effects based on the linear spectral unmixing model, and performed a temporal evaluation of atmospheric constituents from Multi-Angle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction (MAIAC) products. The validation of MAIAC aerosol optical depth (AOD) indicated satisfactory retrievals over the Amazon region, with a correlation coefficient (R) of ~0.7 and 0.85 for Terra and Aqua products, respectively. The seasonal distribution of the cloud cover and AOD revealed a contrast between the first and second half of the year in the study area. Furthermore, simulation of top-of-atmosphere (TOA) reflectance showed a critical contribution of atmospheric effects (>50%) to all spectral bands, especially the deep blue (92%–96%) and blue (84%–92%) bands. The atmospheric correction results of the visible bands illustrate the limitation of the methods over dark lakes ( ${\mathrm{R}}_{\mathrm{W}}$ < 1%), and better match of the ${\mathrm{R}}_{\mathrm{W}}$ shape compared with in-situ measurements over turbid lakes, although the accuracy varied depending on the spectral bands and methods. Particularly above 705 nm, ${\mathrm{R}}_{\mathrm{W}}$ was highly affected by Amazon forest adjacency, and the proposed adjacency effect correction minimized the spectral distortions in ${\mathrm{R}}_{\mathrm{W}}$ (RMSE < 0.006). Finally, an extensive validation of the methods is required for distinct inland water types and atmospheric conditions.

Chlorophyll-a concentration (Chl-a) is a crucial parameter for monitoring the water quality in coastal waters. The principal aim of this study is to evaluate the performance of existing Chl-a band ratio inversion models for estimating Chl-a from Sentinel2-MSI and Sentinel3-OLCI observation. This was performed using an extensive in situ R_rs-Chl-a dataset covering contrasted coastal waters (N = 1244, Chl-a (0.03–555.99) µg/L), which has been clustered into five optical water types (OWTs). Our results show that the blue/green inversion models are suitable to derive Chl-a over clear to medium turbid waters (OWTs 1, 2, and 3) while red/NIR models are adapted to retrieve Chl-a in turbid/high-Chl-a environments. As they exhibited the optimal performance considering these two groups of OWTs, MuBR (multiple band ratio) and NDCI (Normalized Difference Chlorophyll-a Index)-based models were merged using the probability values of the defined OWTs as the blending coefficients. Such a combination provides a reliable Chl-a prediction over the vast majority of the global coastal turbid waters (94%), as evidenced by a good performance on the validation dataset (e.g., MAPD = 21.64%). However, our study further illustrated that none of the evaluated algorithms yield satisfying Chl-a estimates in ultra-turbid waters, which are mainly associated with turbid river plumes (OWT 5). This finding highlights the limitation of multispectral ocean color observation in such optically extreme environments and also implies the interest to better explore hyperspectral Rrs information to predict Chl-a.

Chlorophyll-a (chl-a) is a central water quality parameter that has been estimated through remote sensing bio-optical models. This work evaluated the performance of three well established reflectance based bio-optical algorithms to retrieve chl-a from in situ hyperspectral remote sensing reflectance datasets collected during three field campaigns in the Funil reservoir (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil). A Monte Carlo simulation was applied for all the algorithms to achieve the best calibration. The Normalized Difference Chlorophyll Index (NDCI) got the lowest error (17.85%). The in situ hyperspectral dataset was used to simulate the Ocean Land Color Instrument (OLCI) spectral bands by applying its spectral response function. Therefore, we evaluated its applicability to monitor water quality in tropical turbid inland waters using algorithms developed for MEdium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) data. The application of OLCI simulated spectral bands to the algorithms generated results similar to the in situ hyperspectral: an error of 17.64% was found for NDCI. Thus, OLCI data will be suitable for inland water quality monitoring using MERIS reflectance based bio-optical algorithms.

Uncertainties in the estimates of water constituents are among the main issues concerning the orbital remote sensing of inland waters. Those uncertainties result from sensor design, atmosphere correction, model equations, and in situ conditions (cloud cover, lake size/shape, and adjacency effects). In the Amazon floodplain lakes, such uncertainties are amplified due to their seasonal dynamic. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the suitability of a sensor to cope with them and assess their impact on the algorithms for the retrieval of constituents. The objective of this paper is to assess the impact of the SNR on the Chl-a and TSS algorithms in four lakes located at Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve (Amazonia, Brazil). Two data sets were simulated (noisy and noiseless spectra) based on in situ measurements and on sensor design (MSI/Sentinel-2, OLCI/Sentinel-3, and OLI/Landsat 8). The dataset was tested using three and four algorithms for TSS and Chl-a, respectively. The results showed that the impact of the SNR on each algorithm displayed similar patterns for both constituents. For additive and single band algorithms, the error amplitude is constant for the entire concentration range. However, for multiplicative algorithms, the error changes according to the model equation and the R_rs magnitude. Lastly, for the exponential algorithm, the retrieval amplitude is higher for a low concentration. The OLCI sensor has the best retrieval performance (error of up to 2 μg/L for Chl-a and 3 mg/L for TSS). For MSI, the error of the additive and single band algorithms for TSS and Chl-a are low (up to 5 mg/L and 1 μg/L, respectively); but for the multiplicative algorithm, the errors were above 10 μg/L. The OLI simulation resulted in errors below 3 mg/L for TSS. However, the number and position of OLI bands restrict Chl-a retrieval. Sensor and algorithm selection need a comprehensive analysis of key factors such as sensor design, in situ conditions, water brightness (R_rs), and model equations before being applied for inland water studies.

Recently, different algorithms have been developed to assess near-surface particulate organic matter (POC) concentration over coastal waters. In this study, we gathered an extensive in situ dataset representing various contrasted bio-optical coastal environments at low, medium, and high latitudes, with various bulk particulate matter chemical compositions (mineral-dominated, 50% of the data set, mixed, 40%, or organic-dominated, 10%). The dataset includes 606 coincident measurements of POC concentration and remote-sensing reflectance, R_rs, with POC concentrations covering three orders of magnitude. Twelve existing algorithms have then been tested on this data set, and a new one was proposed. The results show that the performance of historical algorithms depends on the type of water, with an overall low performance observed for mineral-dominated waters. Furthermore, none of the tested algorithms provided satisfactory results over the whole POC range. A novel approach was thus developed based on a maximum band ratio of R_rs (red/blue, red/yellow or red/green ratio). Based on the standard statistical metric for the evaluation of inverse models, the new algorithm presents the best performance. The root-mean square deviation for log-transformed data (RMSD_log) is 0.25. The mean absolute percentage difference (MAPD) is 37.48%. The mean bias (MB) and median ratio (MR) values are 0.54 μg L⁻¹ and 1.02, respectively. This algorithm replicates quite well the distribution of in situ data. The new algorithm was also tested on a matchup dataset gathering 154 coincident MERIS (MEdium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) R_rs and in situ POC concentration sampled along the French coast. The matchup analysis showed that the performance of the new algorithm is satisfactory (RMSD_log = 0.24, MAPD = 34.16%, MR = 0.92). A regional illustration of the model performance for the Louisiana continental shelf shows that monthly mean POC concentrations derived from MERIS with the new algorithm are consistent with those derived from the 2016 algorithm of Le et al. which was specifically developed for this region.

Radiative transfer (RT) simulations have long been used to study the relationships between the inherent optical properties (IOPs) of seawater and light fields within and leaving the ocean, from which ocean apparent optical properties (AOPs) can be calculated. For example, inverse models used to estimate IOPs from ocean color radiometric measurements have been developed and validated using the results of RT simulations. Here we describe the development of a new synthetic optical database based on hyperspectral RT simulations across the spectral range of near-ultraviolet to near-infrared performed with the HydroLight radiative transfer code. The key component of this development is the generation of a synthetic dataset of seawater IOPs that serves as input to RT simulations. Compared to similar developments of optical databases in the past, the present dataset of IOPs is characterized by the probability distributions of IOPs that are consistent with global distributions representative of vast areas of open-ocean pelagic environments and coastal regions, covering a broad range of optical water types. The generation of synthetic data of IOPs associated with particulate and dissolved constituents of seawater was driven largely by an extensive set of field measurements of the phytoplankton absorption coefficient collected in diverse oceanic environments. Overall, the synthetic IOP dataset consists of 3320 combinations of IOPs. Additionally, the pure seawater IOPs were assumed following recent recommendations. The RT simulations were performed using 3320 combinations of input IOPs, assuming vertical homogeneity within an infinitely deep ocean. These input IOPs were used in three simulation scenarios associated with assumptions about inelastic radiative processes in the water column (not considered in previous synthetically generated optical databases) and three simulation scenarios associated with the sun zenith angle. Specifically, the simulations were made assuming no inelastic processes, the presence of Raman scattering by water molecules, and the presence of both Raman scattering and fluorescence of chlorophyll a pigment. Fluorescence of colored dissolved organic matter was omitted from all simulations. For each of these three simulation scenarios, the simulations were made for three sun zenith angles of 0, 30, and 60^∘ assuming clear skies, standard atmosphere, and a wind speed of 5 m s⁻¹. Thus, overall 29 880 RT simulations were performed. The output results of these simulations include radiance distributions, plane and scalar irradiances, and a whole set of AOPs, including remote-sensing reflectance, vertical diffuse attenuation coefficients, and mean cosines, where all optical variables are reported in the spectral range of 350 to 750 nm at 5 nm intervals for different depths between the sea surface and 50 m. The consistency of this new synthetic database has been assessed through comparisons with in situ data and previously developed empirical relationships involving IOPs and AOPs. The database is available at the Dryad open-access repository of research data (https://doi.org/10.6076/D1630T, Loisel et al., 2023).