Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi in food and feed due to several conditions that affect fungal growth and mycotoxin production in different ways. This review aims to explore the different factors that affect mycotoxin production and their control methods. Environmental conditions such as high temperature and humidity increase the risk of fungal growth and mycotoxin production. Other factors that affect contamination include pH, fungal strain, and substrate. To control mycotoxin contamination an integrated approach that starts in the field prior to planting and continues throughout the whole food chain is required, so good practices help minimize contamination at every step to deliver safe products. Good practices include proper practices on the field before and after planting, good harvest practices, appropriate drying measures, and good storage practices. Mycotoxin contamination is inevitable in food and once present they tend to remain as they are very stable compounds, although several physical, chemical and biological techniques could be applied to help minimize contamination. Food processing may also play a minimal role in controlling mycotoxins. Finally, regulations serve to keep food markets free from highly contaminated products, while proper sampling procedures and analytical methods ensure regulations endorsement.

AFB₁ and OTA are produced in food products due to climatic conditions like temperature and humidity. In Lebanon, few studies address AFB₁ and OTA contamination in wheat and wheat products. In this study, a total of 312 samples of wheat and wheat products were collected from different sites, including port, silos, mills, and supermarkets were analysed. Wheat and wheat products consumption in Lebanon was quantified using a food frequency questionnaire. Exposure to AFB₁ and OTA was calculated and liver and kidney cancer risk were evaluated. Results showed that AFB₁ and OTA were, respectively, found in 65.7% and 100% of the samples, with 0.6% and 17.6% exceeding the maximum limit set by the European Commission. AFB₁ was shown to be associated with 0.076 additional cancer cases per 100,000 persons per year and OTA weekly exposure was shown to be 53.2 ng/kg bw, which is less than the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake of 100 ng/kg bw.

Background: Aflatoxin B₁ and ochratoxin A are mycotoxins produced by filamentous fungi that attack crops on field and storage. Both mycotoxins present a risk on public health since aflatoxin B₁ is a hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic agent while ochratoxin A can be nephrotoxic. Those mycotoxins can be found in several food items including spices, herbs, and nuts.Objectives: In Lebanon, few studies address aflatoxin B₁ and ochratoxin A contamination in spices, herbs, and nuts. So, the aim of this study is to investigate the concentrations of those two mycotoxins particularly in spices and herbs and the concentration of aflatoxin B₁ in nuts, and to determine the dietary exposure of the Lebanese population and their possible attribution to liver cancer and renal damage.Methods: In this work, a total of 198 samples of spices, herbs, and nuts were collected from different sites. Aflatoxin B₁ and ochratoxin A were quantified using immune-affinity columns. A food frequency questionnaire was used to quantify the consumption of spices, herbs, and nuts in Lebanon. Exposure to aflatoxin B₁ and ochratoxin A was calculated accordingly and liver and kidney cancer risks were evaluated.Results: Aflatoxin B₁ was respectively found in 100, 20.4, and 98.6% of the spices, herbs, and nuts samples, while ochratoxin A was found in 100 and 44.4% of spices and herbs, respectively. Aflatoxin B₁ was found at mean concentration of 0.97, 0.27, and 0.40 μg/kg in spices, herbs, and nuts, respectively while ochratoxin A was found at mean concentrations of 38.8 and 1.81 μg/kg in spices and herbs, respectively. Aflatoxin B₁ occurrence was shown to be associated in this study with 0.017 additional cancer cases per 100,000 persons per year, and ochratoxin A weekly exposure was shown to be 5.04 ng/kg bw less than the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake of 100 ng/kg bw which indicates low risk of renal damage from spices and herbs consumption.Conclusion: The consumption of spices, herbs, and nuts in Lebanon could lead to an increase in health risks associated with aflatoxin B₁ and ochratoxin A, specifically spices. The reported occurrence may be directly related to poor storage conditions.

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a salient metabolite that can be used to assess Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB1) exposure in humans and animals. The carcinogenic potency of AFB1 and AFM1 was severely reported. The aims of this study were (1) to survey the contamination level of AFM1 in the most traded infant powdered formula brands (IPF) (n = 42) along with the AFB1 level in under 5’s children food brands (biscuits, cornflakes, and cereals) (n = 42) and (2) to assess the estimated daily intake (EDI), the hazard quotient (HQ) and the margin of exposure (MOE) of AFM1 among infants (0–12 months) in Lebanon. All of the samples were analyzed using ELISA technique. AFB1 was below detection limit in all of the children’s food brands samples. Out of 42 IPF samples 9.5% were AFM1-positive in the range of 29.54–140.16 ng/L and exceeded the maximum tolerable limit (MTL) set by the European commission (25 ng/kg). The overall average contamination level was 5.72 ± 0.014 ng/L. The EDI of AMF1 for male was in the range of 0.37–0.78 ng/kg/b.w./day and 0.40–0.87 ng/kg/b.w./day for females. Similarly, the HQ calculation resulted in an average of 3.05 for males and 3.28 for females. MOE calculations were far lower from 10,000 in both genders which indicates a high risk of genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. Our findings show that AFM1’s EDI, HQ and MOE scored high among Lebanese infants. As infants consume more IPF relative to their body weight, the persistence of IPF with high AFM1 levels threatens their health. Thus, infant’s exposure risk to AFM1 in IPF should be a continuous focus of attention.

Tea is among the oldest and most-known beverages around the world, and it has many flavors and types. Tea can be easily contaminated in any of its production steps, especially with mycotoxins that are produced particularly in humid and warm environments. This study aims to examine the level of ochratoxin A (OTA) and total aflatoxin (AF) contamination in black and green tea sold in Lebanon, evaluate its safety compared to international standards, and assess the effect of different variables on the levels of OTA and AFs. For this, the Lebanese market was screened and all tea brands (n = 37; 24 black and 13 green) were collected twice. The Enzyme-Linked Immunoassay (ELISA) method was used to determine OTA and AFs in the samples. AFs and OTA were detected in 28 (75.7%) and 31 (88.6%) samples, respectively. The average of AFs in the positive (above detection limit: 1.75 μg/kg) samples was 2.66 ± 0.15 μg/kg, while the average of OTA in the positive (above detection limit: 1.6 μg/kg) samples was 3.74 ± 0.72 μg/kg. The mean AFs in black and green tea were 2.65 ± 0.55 and 2.54 ± 0.40 μg/kg, respectively, while for OTA, the mean levels were 3.67 ± 0.96 and 3.46 ± 1.09 μg/kg in black and green tea samples, respectively. Four brands (10.8%) contained total aflatoxin levels above the EU limit (4 μg/kg). As for OTA, all samples had OTA levels below the Chinese limit (5 μg/kg). No significant association (p > 0.05) was found between OTA and tea type, level of packaging, country of origin, country of packing, and country of distribution. However, AF contamination was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in unpacked tea, and in brands where the country of origin, packing, and distributor was in Asia. The results showed that the tea brands in Lebanon are relatively safe in terms of AFs and OTA.