CFD (computational fluid dynamics) simulation using a commercial package (Fluent-ANSYS) on industrial rotary kilns using annulus-type burners and methane gas was carried out to examine the characteristics of the flame length and flow visualization. New influencing design and operating parameters—primary air swirl number, primary air inlet annulus diameter, and secondary air temperature—were investigated and discussed. The influence of these parameters on axial temperature distribution, axial mean mixture fractions, velocity vectors, mixture fractions, and temperature contours were investigated. The current numerical findings were compared with existing experimental results to validate the simulation approach. The results showed that the primary air swirl number had a remarkable influence on the flame length at a lower primary air inlet annulus diameter ratio of 2.3. Moreover, the flame length increased by 20% and 6% with increasing the swirl number from zero to one for primary air inlet annulus diameter ratios of 2.3 and 5, respectively, and it also increased by 19% with increasing primary air inlet annulus diameter ratio from 2.3 to 5.

The popularity of vehicles and the increased time spent in cars with air conditioning systems has led to regulations in many countries that require the use of environmentally friendly refrigerants with minimal global warming and zero ozone depletion potential (GWP and ODP). Cars need high-performance, eco-friendly air conditioning systems to reduce their impact on the environment, lower fuel consumption, and decrease carbon emissions. The aim of the current work was to propose CO₂-based blend zeotropic refrigerants, R-455A (R-744/32/1234yf) and R-463A (R-744/32/125/1234yf/134a), to improve the thermodynamic performance of pure CO₂ refrigerants. The thermodynamic energy and exergy analysis and system optimization of an AAC system for the new zeotropic refrigerant blends compared to carbon dioxide (R-744), using Aspen HYSYS software, were investigated. The influence of cooler/condenser pressure, average evaporator temperature, cooler/condenser outlet temperature, and refrigerant flow rate on the cycles’ COP and exergy efficiency were conducted and are presented. The results showed that, at the same operating condition parameters, the cycle COP improved by 57.6 and 76.5% when using R455A and R463A instated of R744, respectively, with the advantage of reducing leakage problems due to the higher operating pressure of R744 (5–7 times higher than those of R455A and R463A), as well as requiring heavy equipment, but at optimal operating condition parameters, R744 and R-463A had a maximum COP of 14.58 and 14.19, respectively. The maximum COPs of R744, R455A, and R463A based on the optimal pressure of the cooler/condenser were 3.1, 4.25, and 5.4, respectively. Additionally, regarding the need for environmentally friendly air conditioning systems with acceptable performance in cars due to their impact on the environment and their contribution to global warming, the blend R455A is recommended for use as a refrigerant in AAC systems.

The widespread use of automobiles and the increased duration spent within automobiles equipped with air conditioning systems have prompted various countries to enforce regulations that advocate for eco-friendly cooling substances (refrigerants) characterized by a slight global warming potential (GWP) and the absence of an ozone depletion potential (ODP). The imperative for automobiles to possess air conditioning systems that are both high-performing and eco-conscious has emerged as a means to mitigate their ecological impact, reduce fuel usage, and minimize carbon emissions. Zeotropic refrigerants, with a lower GWP than traditional alternatives, contribute to sustainability in car air conditioning by reducing the environmental impact and enhancing the energy efficiency, aligning with global regulations and fostering innovation in the automotive industry. This shift signifies a commitment to mitigating climate change and adopting environmentally conscious practices. The objective of the present study is to introduce blends of zeotropic refrigerants based on CO₂ (R-744), namely R455A (a blend of R-744, R-32, and R-1234yf), R469A (a blend of R-744, R-32, and R-125), and R472A (a blend of R-744, R-32, and R-134a), to enhance the thermodynamic performance of pure CO₂ refrigerant. Through the utilization of the Aspen HYSYS V11 software, an investigation is carried out involving thermodynamic energy and exergy analyses, as well as system optimization for an automotive air conditioning (AAC) system utilizing these novel zeotropic refrigerant blends, in comparison with the use of R-744 as the refrigerant. The study delves into the impact of parameters such as average evaporator temperature, condenser/cooler pressure, refrigerant flow rate, and condenser/cooler outlet temperature on AACs’ output parameters and subsequently presents the findings. The outcomes reveal that, under equivalent operational circumstances, the adoption of R455A, R469A, and R472A offers improvements in coefficient of performance (COP) by 35.4%, 18.75%, and 2%, respectively, when compared to R744. This shift is advantageous as it mitigates leakage-related issues stemming from the elevated operational pressure of R744 and eliminates the need for cumbersome equipment. R455A and R469A obtain the greatest COP and exergy efficiency (η_ex) values, measuring 4.44 and 4.55, respectively, at the identical operating conditions with optimal condenser/cooler pressures of the examined blends. Furthermore, eco-friendly refrigerants R455A and R472A are recommended for integration into AAC systems in vehicles, as they help combat global warming and protect natural surroundings and leakage issues.