The approach of evaluating the final scores of multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) methods according to the strength of association with real-life rankings is interesting for comparing MCDM methods. This approach has recently been applied mostly to financial data. In these studies, where it is emphasized that some methods show more stable success, it would be useful to see the results that will emerge by testing the approach on different data structures more comprehensively. Moreover, not only the final MCDM results but also the performance of normalization techniques and data types (fuzzy or crisp), which are components of MCDM, can be compared using the same approach. These components also have the potential to affect MCDM results directly. In this direction, in our study, the economic performances of G-20 (Group of 20) countries, which have different data structures, were calculated over ten different periodic decision matrices. Ten different crisp-based MCDM methods (COPRAS, CODAS, MOORA, TOPSIS, MABAC, VIKOR (S, R, Q), FUCA, and ELECTRE III) with different capabilities were used to better visualize the big picture. The relationships between two different real-life reference anchors and MCDM methods were used as a basis for comparison. The CODAS method develops a high correlation with both anchors in most periods. The most appropriate normalization technique for CODAS was identified using these two anchors. Interestingly, the maximum normalization technique was the most successful among the alternatives (max, min–max, vector, sum, and alternative ranking-based). Moreover, we compared the two main data types by comparing the correlation results of crisp-based and fuzzy-based CODAS. The results were very consistent, and the “Maximum normalization-based fuzzy integrated CODAS procedure” was proposed to decision-makers to measure the economic performance of the countries.

Rapid industrialization tends to occur at the expense of natural resources. Thus, countries are inclined to control natural resources for their development objectives, which may create conflicts when countries allocate scarce resources to national defense. As a major military block, NATO poses a potential threat to environmental degradation, as it comprises large industrialized arms manufacturers and military spenders. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the asymmetric effects of the defense burden on environmental degradation, which has rarely been studied in the empirical literature. Panel ARDL and NARDL methodologies were used to analyze the period 1965–2018 for the 15 oldest members of NATO. The findings of the panel ARDL analysis do not indicate any significant effect of the defense burden (ME) on carbon dioxide emissions (CO₂) in the long term. On the other hand, panel NARDL analysis indicates that the effect of the defense burden on carbon emissions is asymmetric; a 1% negative change in ME leads to a 0.08% drop in CO₂ emissions in the long term. In line with these findings, the results of panel causality tests verify the validity of the treadmill of destruction theory.

The integration of economic growth, social cohesion, and environmental sustainability within European Union (EU) development frameworks has been strategically aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These objectives have been positioned to reinforce the EU’s welfare state model while fostering harmonization across member states. In this study, the performance trajectories of 27 EU countries from 2000 to 2023 have been assessed to determine whether convergence in SDG outcomes has occurred, and whether progress towards sustainable development has followed a common pathway. The SDG Index and data for 16 individual SDGs were analyzed using the club convergence methodology and the log t-regression test, allowing for the identification of heterogeneous dynamic patterns and latent convergence clubs. The results indicate that a singular equilibrium in SDG performance has not yet been achieved, with evidence of structural divergence across several key goals. While convergence has been observed for Goals 1, 9, 12, and 13, significant divergence persists for Goals 2, 5, 6, and 8. These findings underscore the limitations of a uniform policy approach and suggest that differentiated, context-sensitive strategies may be required to close performance gaps. The presence of club convergence further implies that member states are evolving towards distinct equilibria, shaped by domestic policy frameworks, institutional capacities, and socioeconomic contexts. This study addresses a significant gap in the literature by providing a systematic and longitudinal analysis of SDG performance heterogeneity within the EU and contributes to ongoing debates on the effectiveness of supranational sustainability governance. It is argued that recognizing and responding to these differentiated trajectories is critical for the design of targeted policy interventions capable of advancing inclusive and balanced sustainable development across the union.

The importance of military expenditure in terms of establishing national security constitutes the main excuse for public expenditures made by states in this field. Yet, a special importance should be attached to military expenditure in terms of ensuring the efficiency of the public sectors of developing countries and rational use of resources. In fact, there is no consensus about the effect of these types of expenditures on the economy in general or the trade-offs they cause. Therefore, their effects on major macroeconomic variables and efficiency in resource allocation, production, and distribution deserve to be comprehensively addressed. To this end, this study aims to investigate the long- term effect of militarization on inflation in Turkey. By incorporating the annual data from the period 1970 to 2020 and employing the combined approach to cointegration suggested by Bayer and Hanck (2013), the presence of long-term interplay between militarization and inflation can be analyzed. After detecting the presence of cointegration, the findings of the long run model reveal that inflation is spurred by military expenditure and arms imports besides the other determinants of inflation.

Agriculture, which has historically been the main employment generating sector, is still very important in newly industrializing countries such as Turkey. Theoretically, it is thought that its share in GNP will decrease over time, but the depth of the decrease will depend on the economic impact of agriculture. One way to measure this effect is to adapt the Phillips curve for the agricultural sector. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyse the validity of the Phillips curve in the Turkish agricultural sector. The study is conducted by the Augmented Dickey Fuller, Phillips Perron and Zivot-Anders Unit Root Tests as well as Nonlinear Autoregressive Distributed Lag and Autoregressive Distributed Lag tests via TURKSTAT 2014Q1-2020Q3 dataset. Reviewing these test, we find that the cointegration coefficient calculated by the NARDL model is negative, yet statistically significant. Accordingly, the short-term imbalances are eliminated in the long-run and the system converges to the long-run equilibrium values. Nonetheless, since the coefficient is greater than one, it is a sign of significant fluctuations in the convergence of the system to the long-term equilibrium. Additionally, the long-run negative cointegrated relationship of unemployment and inflation indicates that the Phillips Curve is valid in Turkish agricultural sector.