Training above 1800 m causes increases in hemoglobin, erythropoietin and VO2max values in the bodies of athletes. The purpose of this study is to prove that living at an altitude of 1850 m and training at 2200 m (LHTH+) is more effective than living and training at 2000 m (LHTH). Ten endurance athletes (age 21.2 ± 1.5 years, body mass 55.8 ± 4.3 kg, height 169 ± 6 cm, performance 3000 m 8:35 ± 0:30 min) performed three training sessions of 30 days, in three different situations: [1] living and training at 2000 m altitude (LHTH), [2] living at 1850 m and training at 2200 m (LHTH+), and [3] living and training at 300 m (LLTL). The differences in erythropoietin (EPO), hemoglobin (Hb) concentration, and VO2max values were compared before and at the end of each training session. Data analysis indicated that LHTH training caused an increase in EPO values (by 1.0 ± 0.8 mU/mL, p = 0.002 < 0.05.); Hb (by 1.1 ± 0.3 g/dL, p < 0.001); VO2max (by 0.9 ± 0.23 mL/kg/min, p < 0.001). LHTH+ training caused an increase in EPO values (by 1.9 ± 0.5 mU/ML, p < 0.001); Hb (by 1.4 ± 0.5 g/dL, p < 0.001); VO2max (by 1.7 ± 0.3 mL/kg/min, p < 0.001). At the LLTL training, EPO values do not have a significant increase (p = 0.678 > 0.050; 1 ± 0.1 mU/mL, 0.1 ± 0.9%.), Hb (0.1 ± 0.0 g/dL, 0.3 ± 0.3%), VO2max (0.1 ± 0.1, 0.2 ± 0.2%, p = 0.013 < 0.05). Living and training at altitudes of 2000 m (LHTH) and living at 1850 m training at 2200 m (LHTH+) resulted in significant improvements in EPO, Hb, and VO2max that exceeded the changes in these parameters, following traditional training at 300 m (LLTL). LHTH+ training has significantly greater changes than LHTH training, favorable to increasing sports performance. The results of this study can serve as guidelines for athletic trainers in their future work, in the complete structure of multi-year planning and programming, and thus improve the process of development and performance training.

The aim of the research was to identify the effect of 4vs.4 small-sided games (SSGs) with goalkeepers (4vs.4+GK), applied twice a week, for 8 weeks, on U18 football players’ physical ability, compared to that of the athletes who performed specific aerobic endurance training. The research included 40 football players U18, divided into two groups: 20 in the experiment group (EG) aged 17.49 ± 0.61 years and 20 in the control group (CG) aged 17.66 ± 0.54 years. From the initial test (IT) to final tests (FT) performed on the parameters, maximum oxygen consumption (VO_2max) and 10 m and 20 m sprint and agility with and without a ball showed a significant increase for both groups. The first and last SSG training was monitored, using total distance (TD), high-intensity distance (HSR—high-speed running) and maximum intensity distance (VHSR—very-high-speed running). Comparative analyses of EG and CG parameters at the FT shows that the differences between the means of two groups are statistically significant in favor of the experimental group in terms of all parameters, except 10 m sprint (p < 0.05). Referring to SSGs, the experimental group had a 7.78% increase rate in TD (p < 0.0005), a 30.90% (p < 0.0005) increase rate with HSR and no significant differences (p > 0.05) with VHSR. The experimental training program of 4vs.4+GK SSGs, applied to U18 football players, produced significant progress in the physical, and functional parameters.

Caffeine is widely used to enhance cognitive performance, but its efficacy may vary with the administration route and circadian timing. This study compared the acute effects of caffeine capsule ingestion and caffeine mouth rinsing on cognitive performance across morning, midday, and evening sessions in well-trained, adolescent male volleyball players. Twenty-four athletes completed three randomized, double-blind, crossover trials involving a caffeine capsule (3 mg·kg⁻¹), a caffeine mouth rinse of the same dose (expectorated), and a placebo. Cognitive performance was assessed using simple and choice reaction time tests and the Stroop task, alongside a side-effects questionnaire. Both caffeine forms improved performance versus the placebo, with the greatest enhancements occurring at midday and moderate benefits evident in the morning. Capsule ingestion produced the most consistent improvements across reaction speed and executive control, whereas mouth rinsing elicited smaller, task-dependent effects, particularly at midday. No consistent or practically relevant benefits were observed for either caffeine condition in the evening, when cognitive performance was naturally highest. Side effects were mild and infrequent, with occasional headaches after capsule ingestion. These findings indicate that caffeine capsules most effectively enhance cognitive performance when baseline alertness is suboptimal, while caffeine mouth rinsing represents a practical ingestion-free alternative with moderate efficacy.

Wrestling is a physically and mentally demanding combat sport that requires discipline, focus, and emotional control. Although its physiological effects ar

Tailoring motor activities to the unique needs of children with special educational requirements has shown considerable efficacy. Our study aimed to develop a structured program specifically designed to enhance psychomotor abilities, focusing on balance and motor–cognitive skills among 28 students (aged 12–14) from two institutional centers in Romania. The program spanned 36 weeks, with biweekly 30 min sessions. Psychomotor skills were assessed through tests measuring balance, speed of movements, and upper limb motor laterality. Initial and final data were collected for evaluation. A statistical analysis, employing the Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Wilcoxon Z tests, compared the assessments. The results indicated significant improvements in movement speed, with a notable increase in stimulus identification (averaging from approximately 13 to 14) (p < 0.05) and reduced processing time (decreasing from about 28.7 to 28 s) (p < 0.05). However, while the structured program demonstrated substantial enhancements in specific motor and cognitive–motor skills, it did not yield significant changes in dynamic balance, maintaining values close to 0.9 (p > 0.05) for open-eyed balance and 0.88 (p > 0.05) for closed-eyed balance. Additionally, an analysis of the processing speed in pulses per second showcased a marginal decline, from approximately 0.46 to 0.45, revealing notable disparities between the initial and final measurements (p < 0.05).

Background/Objectives: Physical fitness is a key determinant of health in university students, a population at risk of sedentary behaviors and lifestyle-related health issues. The European Fitness Badge (EFB) provides a comprehensive assessment of fitness parameters and individualized feedback. This study aimed to evaluate the physical fitness of Romanian university students using the EFB to examine the effects of activity profile, sex, age, and academic major and to associate physical fitness with body composition indices, including Body Mass Index (BMI) and A Body Shape Index (ABSI). Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 180 university students (43.33% male; age 18–53 years). Participants were categorized into two fitness profiles: Basic (TP1) and Advanced (TP2). Physical fitness was assessed through standardized EFB protocols measuring endurance, strength, flexibility, coordination, and overall fitness. Independent t-tests, one- and two-way ANOVA, and Pearson correlations were used to analyze differences and associations. Results: TP2 participants scored significantly higher in endurance, strength, coordination, and overall fitness, Males outperformed females in strength and coordination. Strength decreased with age, particularly in the oldest group. The sports students demonstrated superior fitness compared to peers in other majors. Two-way ANOVA revealed significant interactions between profile and sex for strength and overall fitness. BMI and ABSI were negatively correlated with physical fitness, in strength, coordination, and overall fitness. Conclusions: The EFB proved effective in differentiating physical fitness profiles. Demographic factors and body composition influenced fitness outcomes, underscoring the need for targeted, profile-based physical activity strategies specifically adapted to university curricula and extracurricular sport programs. However, the findings should be interpreted in light of the study’s geographic limitation, as the sample included only Romanian university students.