Probiotics are live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the host. The selection criteria for probiotics include strain safety, viability, tolerance, metabolite production and/or the ability to modulate the immune system. Probiotics are commonly used in industries, such as food, agriculture, medicine, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, and aquaculture. Recently, the medicinal applications of probiotics have gained attention and are being explored for the prevention and treatment of various diseases. One emerging area of interest is their potential role in psychological disorders. Mental illnesses, characterised by disturbances in behaviour, mood, thinking, and emotions, affect over one billion people globally. While various preventive and treatment options for mental disorders exists, each is associated with certain limitations. A new avenue being explored is the gut-brain axis, a complex bi-directional communication between the gut and the brain, that is facilitated by hormonal, neuronal, humoral, and immunological pathways. This system plays an important role in mental health. Probiotics, as a key modulator of the gut microbiome, could play a vital role in this communication. However, the underlying mechanisms remain to be explored. Probiotics may act through the production of metabolites and neuroactive substances, as well as through immunomodulation and cytokine production. Current data shows promising effects on stress, mood, and depression, presenting probiotics as a potential natural treatment option for psychological disorders. Nevertheless, major limitations in the existing research include insufficient clinical outcomes, limited sample sizes, and variable dosing. Future advancements may be achieved through stratifications based on gut microbiota, the use of next-generation probiotic strains, and the conduct of comprehensive validation studies.

Modification of the gut microbiota by beneficial microbes can enhance an organism's lifespan, giving rise to the concept of probiotics. Probiotics are live microorganisms that provide health benefits when taken in sufficient amounts. Owing to their outstanding health benefits, probiotics have experienced rapid expansion and gained interest for the development of new applications. The exploration of microbial applications via genetic modification is currently of great interest to researchers. Genetic engineering using the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-Cas system has received considerable attention and has established applications. Owing to these enhanced properties, the CRISPR-Cas system is currently used in medicine, agriculture, food, and biotechnology. Considering the adaptive immune system in bacteria, this genetic tool is used to alter the microbial genome. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are widely recognized for their probiotic potential, and over 40% of LAB species contain the CRISPR-Cas system. The rising demand for probiotics and their expanding applications necessitate the enhancement of their existing characteristics. The CRISPR-Cas system, recognized for its precision, accuracy, and speed, has enabled researchers to modify the genomes of probiotics, thereby enhancing their beneficial attributes. This system can enhance probiotic properties through additive, subtractive, or modulatory mechanisms. Various approaches have been developed to improve probiotic functionalities using the CRISPR-Cas system, such as substituting slow promoters with efficient alternatives, eliminating undesirable components, boosting metabolism, and increasing tolerance levels. Furthermore, CRISPR-engineered probiotics have emerged as next-generation probiotics with enhanced properties and advanced applications across diverse fields, including the food, medicine, agriculture, and pharmaceutical sectors.

Background: The HHFNC is routinely utilised as a non-invasive respiratory support for preterm infants with respiratory distress; few studies have compared it to nCPAP for the first treatment of respiratory distress in preterm neonates. This study aims to compare the effectiveness and outcomes of HHFNC and nCPAP in improving respiratory outcomes and reducing adverse effects. Methods: The 220 patients from the neonatal unit enrolled in the study (110 in each group) after obtaining written informed consent from their parents/guardians. Nasal CPAP was applied to patients in group A through a nasal mask with the following settings: FiO₂: 40–60%, PEEP: 5–8 cm H₂O, flow: 4–6 L/min. HHFNC was initiated at 5 L/min and adjusted between 3–7 L/min based on respiratory status, with FiO₂ starting at 0.4 and modified to maintain SPO₂; between 88–94%. Study variables were recorded and analysed using SPSS version 23.0. Results: The comparison of nCPAP (Group A) and HHFNC (Group B) showed no significant differences in age, gestational age, or clinical parameters, except for a higher respiratory rate in HHFNC. The HHFNC group had significantly shorter durations of non-invasive ventilator support and hospital stay. Adverse effects were more common in HHFNC, especially nasal mucosal injury, while sepsis was more frequent in nCPAP. Treatment failure occurred more often in the HHFNC group. Neonatal outcomes were similar, with no significant differences in discharge without the need for intubation rates, mortality, or intubation rates. Conclusions: The HHFNC is associated with a shorter duration of non-invasive ventilatory support and hospital stay compared to nCPAP. However, nCPAP demonstrated a significant survival advantage and a lower risk of treatment failure. Both modalities are effective in supporting preterm neonates with respiratory distress, but clinical considerations should guide the choice of therapy. Further research is necessary to confirm these findings and explore strategies to optimize outcomes and mitigate adverse effects associated with each modality.

This chapter elaborates on the relationship between genus-, species- and strain-specific and disease condition-specific effects, issues, and applications of probiotics. It discusses the significance of certain genera and strains of probiotic microbes over others, as well as their unique mechanisms of action in combating certain diseases. The chapter details the uniqueness of probiotics in the two different levels of taxonomy, focusing especially on Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium as traditional examples of probiotics, while also shedding light on their shared mechanisms and traits. Explanations of the therapeutic effects of probiotics across a range of different diseases are also provided, with reference to the genus and species to which each probiotic belongs. The chapter should ultimately enable the reader to identify and predict the effect of different probiotics when applied to the treatment of different disease conditions, based on the genus and species to which it belongs, while also relating the possible issues that may arise with the use of the same.

Hypertension is one of the most important risk factors for morbidity and mortality around the world. Many drugs used to treat hypertension have several side effects. Atenolol used to control hypertension, is an anti-beta-adrenergic agent. It has found to significantly affect the hepatic functions. Objective: To study the effects of atenolol on hepatic dysfunction by measuring AST level in hypertensive patients, taking atenolol alone or in combination with other anti-hypertensive drugs. Methods: The variation in AST level was measured upon use of atenolol alone or in combination with other anti-hypertensive drugs. Out of total 80 patients, 43 were treated with atenolol alone, 37 with atenolol in combination with other anti-hypertensive drugs and 20 were healthy controls. Micro lab tests were used for measurement of AST level. Results: Significant results were found as atenolol cause increase in AST level. Other anti-hypertensive drugs did not affect the AST levels much and the increase in AST level was more significant in patients taking atenolol alone. Conclusions: Atenolol may have efficacy in controlling hypertension, but it causes disturbance in AST levels therefore any other drug in combination with atenolol is recommended to avoid AST variation and eventually hepatic dysfunctions. Further this study may be employed on large scale for strengthening the outcomes of this study