Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Salmonella is a major concern in terms of human health, environmental sustainability, and global food security. Salmonella, the world's most prevalent foodborne pathogen, has gradually gained resistance to important drugs, complicating treatment efforts and leading to rising morbidity, mortality, and economic costs. Overuse of antibiotics in human medicine and agriculture, inadequate regulatory compliance, and environmental pollution from agricultural runoff and treated sewage all contribute to the growth and spread of AMR in Salmonella. Health as well as viewpoints on environmental, animal, and human health will be required to address this complicated problem. This includes promoting reasonable antibiotic use, improving global surveillance systems, and researching novel treatments including phage therapy, probiotics, and new antibiotics. Proposals for vaccination and precise food safety standards are critical for limiting Salmonella transmission across the food chain. Despite significant progress, critical research gaps continue, specifically in understanding the molecular basis of resistance and the role of environmental practices. However, contemporary research endeavors are concentrated on identifying and comprehending the prevalence of extensively drug-resistant Salmonella strains, elucidating the bacterium's defense mechanisms against antibiotics, and investigating outbreaks associated with vegetables. Global surveillance, the development of alternative therapies, and the implementation of stricter antibiotic policies are essential strategies in addressing AMR in Salmonella. Additionally, policy design and implementation, capacity building in low- and middle-income countries, and raising public awareness all necessitate urgent global collaboration among governments, international agencies, non-governmental organizations, and the corporate sector. Stricter regulations on overuse of antibiotics in agriculture is also called for. This review highlights the importance of multi-disciplinary struggles in engaging Salmonella, as integrated resolutions through a One Health approach are crucial for ensuring food safety, preserving public health, and minimizing the worldwide threat of AMR.

Heavy metal pollution represents a pervasive environmental challenge that significantly exacerbates the ever-increasing crisis of antimicrobial resistance and the capacity of microorganisms to endure and proliferate despite antibiotic interventions. This review examines the intricate relationship between heavy metals and AMR, with an emphasis on the underlying molecular mechanisms and ecological ramifications. Common environmental metals, including arsenic, mercury, cadmium, and lead, exert substantial selective pressures on microbial communities. These induce oxidative stress and DNA damage, potentially leading to mutations that enhance antibiotic resistance. Key microbial responses include the overexpression of efflux pumps that expel both metals and antibiotics, production of detoxifying enzymes, and formation of protective biofilms, all of which contribute to the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains. In the soil environment, particularly the rhizosphere, heavy metals disrupt plant–microbe interactions by inhibiting beneficial organisms, such as rhizobacteria, mycorrhizal fungi, and actinomycetes, thereby impairing nutrient cycling and plant health. Nonetheless, certain microbial consortia can tolerate and detoxify heavy metals through sequestration and biotransformation, rendering them valuable for bioremediation. Advances in biotechnology, including gene editing and the development of engineered metal-resistant microbes, offer promising solutions for mitigating the spread of metal-driven AMR and restoring ecological balance. By understanding the interplay between metal pollution and microbial resistance, we can more effectively devise strategies for environmental protection and public health.

Salmonella-related gastroenteritis and diarrheal infections pose significant health risks across all age groups in the developing countries. The high consumption of raw green leafy vegetables, particularly among health-conscious and younger populations, may further increase the risk of infection if food preparation is inadequate. In the current study, 645 vegetable samples were collected over the year, and 61 samples tested positive for bacterial contamination of Salmonella spp. The highest bacterial contamination was recorded in cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) (18.60%, positive (n)/total sample (N) = 8/43), Bathua (Chenopodium album), and fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-gracecum) (18.60%, n/N = 8/43), followed by cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) (13.95%, n/N = 6/43), parsley (Petroselinum crispum), spinach (Spinacia oleracea), and purslane (Portulaca oleracea) (11.62%, n/N = 5/43). The vegetable samples were collected randomly, and vegetables were subsequently assessed biochemically and microbiologically. Over the year, monthly analysis revealed peak contamination percentages in February (15.55%, n/N = 7/45), September (11.66%, n/N = 7/60), August, and January (10.66%, n/N = 8/75). The 15 samples was selected from 61 Salmonella isolates for antibiotic susceptibility profiling showed the high resistance to methicillin (93.33%, n/N = 14/15), Cefpodoxime, Clindamycin, and Teicoplanin (80%, n/N = 12/15), Linezolid, Novobiocin, Colistin, and Nitrofurantoin (53.33%, n/N = 8/15). Analysis of randomly selected vegetable samples using 16S rRNA confirmed the presence of Salmonella typhimurium subspecies as the predominant serovars. The present study is crucial for understanding the nature of bacterial flora, resistance, and transmission.

In this study, whole protein hydrolysate (Madira, PRJ-1) of barnyard millet's seed was produced through a fermentation process using Lactobacillus paracasei and employed as an antibacterial hydrolysate. The antibacterial properties of the protein hydrolysate were investigated against Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive) and Escherichia coli (Gram-negative) bacterial strains, respectively, using well diffusion method. Strikingly, a significant level of inhibition was observed, revealing zones of inhibition 11 ± 1.2 mm and 12 ± 1.5 mm against Gram-positive bacteria and Gram-negative respectively. Additionally, the fermented protein hydrolysate demonstrated significant antiprotease activity, with notable percentages of trypsin inhibition. The findings indicated statistically significant (P < 0.05) inhibition of microbial growth, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) 120 μg/200 μL for Staphylococcus aureus and against the Escherichia coli at pH 7.0. These results highlight the potential of whole protein hydrolysate (Madira, PRJ-1) of barnyard millet's seed as a promising bioactive hydrolysate with antimicrobial applications.

Fungal biofilms are complex and resistant structures that pose a challenge in treating infections. Active phytoconstituents are natural compounds derived from plants that have shown promising antifungal properties. Many reports of antimicrobial resistance in human pathogenic fungi demand immediate attention to explore new therapeutics. Plant-based therapeutics alone or in conjugated form have shown promising results against fungal biofilms. Several studies have reported the effectiveness of various phyto constituents in inhibiting the formation and dispersal of fungal biofilm. Different mechanisms, such as disrupting cell signaling pathways, inhibiting biofilm matrix formation, and altering the fungal cell wall structure, have demonstrated the effectiveness of these compounds. This review focuses on the use of active phytoconstituents as potential agents against fungal biofilm.