Graphene, a two-dimensional material with remarkable electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties, has revolutionized the fields of electronics, energy storage, and nanotechnology. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of graphene synthesis techniques, which can be classified into two primary approaches: top-down and bottom-up. Top-down methods, such as mechanical exfoliation, oxidation-reduction, unzipping carbon nanotubes, and liquid-phase exfoliation, are highlighted for their scalability and cost-effectiveness, albeit with challenges in controlling defects and uniformity. In contrast, bottom-up methods, including chemical vapor deposition (CVD), arc discharge, and epitaxial growth on silicon carbide, offer superior structural control and quality but are often constrained by high costs and limited scalability. The interplay between synthesis parameters, material properties, and application requirements is critically examined to provide insights into optimizing graphene production. This review also emphasizes the growing demand for sustainable and environmentally friendly approaches, aligning with the global push for green nanotechnology. By synthesizing current advancements and identifying critical research gaps, this work offers a roadmap for selecting the most suitable synthesis techniques and fostering innovations in scalable and high-quality graphene production. The findings serve as a valuable resource for researchers and industries aiming to harness graphene’s full potential in diverse technological applications.

Graphene, a two-dimensional material with remarkable electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties, has revolutionized the fields of electronics, energy storage, and nanotechnology. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of graphene synthesis techniques, which can be classified into two primary approaches: top-down and bottom-up. Top-down methods, such as mechanical exfoliation, oxidation-reduction, arc discharge, unzipping carbon nanotubes, and liquid-phase exfoliation, are highlighted for their scalability and cost-effectiveness, albeit with challenges in controlling defects and uniformity. In contrast, bottom-up methods, including Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) and epitaxial growth on silicon carbide, offer superior structural control and quality but are often constrained by high costs and limited scalability. The interplay between synthesis parameters, material properties, and application requirements is critically examined to provide insights into optimizing graphene production. This review also emphasizes the growing demand for sustainable and environmentally friendly approaches, aligning with the global push for green nanotechnology. By synthesizing current advancements and identifying critical research gaps, this work offers a roadmap for selecting the most suitable synthesis techniques and fostering innovations in scalable and high-quality graphene production. The findings serve as a valuable resource for researchers and industries aiming to harness graphene's full potential in diverse technological applications.

Research on the effect of ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) electrolyte on graphene nanosheet (GNS) electrodes derived from candlenut shells (Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.) as primary battery cathodes has been conducted. GNS was synthesized via pyrolysis and modified with NH₄Cl to produce G–N 0.5 M, G–N 1.0 M, G–N 2.0 M, and G–N 3.0 M samples. The materials were characterized using XRD, SEM-EDX, BET, electrical measurements at 0.5–1.5 V, CV, and GCD. XRD results show peaks at 2θ ≈ 25° and 44.27° corresponding to C(002) and C(100) planes, while G–N samples exhibit new diffraction peaks at (111), (200), (220), (311), (222), and (400), indicating NH₄Cl incorporation. SEM analysis reveals a transition from layered GNS morphology to more wrinkled and agglomerated structures with increasing NH₄Cl concentration, supported by EDX showing decreasing carbon content and the presence of chlorine (up to ~5.9%). BET analysis shows the surface area of GNS is 124.6 m²g^-1 and G-N 2 is 307.4 m²g^-1. This increasing in line with the number of Electrical conductivity increases significantly G–N 2.0 M significantly, along with energy density (~605 Wh·kg⁻¹) and power density (~605 W·kg⁻¹), with specific capacitance is 202.79 F g^-1 These results indicate that NH₄Cl modification enhances electrochemical performance and highlights the importance of electrolyte variation in optimizing GNS-based electrodes for primary battery applications.