Graphene, a two-dimensional material with remarkable electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties, has revolutionized the fields of electronics, energy storage, and nanotechnology. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of graphene synthesis techniques, which can be classified into two primary approaches: top-down and bottom-up. Top-down methods, such as mechanical exfoliation, oxidation-reduction, unzipping carbon nanotubes, and liquid-phase exfoliation, are highlighted for their scalability and cost-effectiveness, albeit with challenges in controlling defects and uniformity. In contrast, bottom-up methods, including chemical vapor deposition (CVD), arc discharge, and epitaxial growth on silicon carbide, offer superior structural control and quality but are often constrained by high costs and limited scalability. The interplay between synthesis parameters, material properties, and application requirements is critically examined to provide insights into optimizing graphene production. This review also emphasizes the growing demand for sustainable and environmentally friendly approaches, aligning with the global push for green nanotechnology. By synthesizing current advancements and identifying critical research gaps, this work offers a roadmap for selecting the most suitable synthesis techniques and fostering innovations in scalable and high-quality graphene production. The findings serve as a valuable resource for researchers and industries aiming to harness graphene’s full potential in diverse technological applications.

This work had successfully produced Theobroma cacao L. (TCL) husk-based cellulose used efficiently and friendly environmentally simple microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) method. The microwave-assisted heating time optimization of alkaline-treatment was carried out for 10, 20, 30 and 40 minutes. Microwave-assisted bleaching process was also conducted using green bleaching agent H₂O₂, and also utilizing microwave heating for 60 minutes. The followed treatment was filtered, neutralized, washed and overnight freeze-dried. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis confirmed common cellulose functional groups of TLC, are β-(1,4)-glycosidic bonds at ∼897 cm^-1, O-H (hydrogen bond) at 3412 cm^-1, C-H vibration at 2902 cm^-1, C-O-C asymmetric at 1161 cm^-1, and C-OH out-of-plane bending at 665 cm^-1. FTIR analysis, in addition, also studied crystallinity ratio (CrR), hydrogen bond energy (E _H) and hydrogen bond distances (R _H), while particle size analyzer (PSA), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermogravimetry analysis (TGA) were carried out to confirm particles sizes, crystallinities and thermal stability properties of TCL husk, cellulose of TCL husk and commercial-microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), respectively.