The European parliament has declared a global “climate and environmental emergency” on 28 November 2019. Given that, climate change is a clear strategic issue all around the world. Then, greenhouse gas emissions are reported by each country to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) every year. In addition, The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in the “2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories” give the procedure to calculate and manage the national greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. However, these guidelines do not provide any method to consider the net carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere (released in clinker fabrication minus those due to concrete carbonation) by the Portland cement clinker industry. This topic should be implemented in the climatic models of the next IPCC assessment report. This paper provides an easy procedure of estimating net CO₂ emissions proposed in the “recarbonation project” (simplified method); that is to say, carbon dioxide uptake during the service-life stage is considered as the 20% of the CO₂ released by the calcination (process emissions), whereas the end-of-life and secondary usage is only the 3% of the CO₂ released by calcination. The outcome of this study reveals that 31,290.753 tons of carbon dioxide will be absorbed by the cement-based materials produced in Spain with the cements manufactured from 2005 to 2015.

The European Green Deal and its endeavors will make rapid and far-reaching decisions with major implications for the European cement industry in the short- and longer-term. Accordingly, new measures should be dealt with quickly and effectively to minimize the adverse impact on global warming and global climate change by this sector. The aim of this study is to show and assess the measures to be undertaken to reach carbon neutrality by the Spanish cement industry by 2050. They may be categorized into three broad types based on the main materials: clinker, cement, and concrete. The cement sector must implement breakthrough initiatives, inventions, and technologies regarding the clinker and cement production processes. Furthermore, carbon dioxide uptake by cement-based materials must be considered to achieve the carbon neutrality objective. Accordingly, two methodologies named simplified and advanced, consistent with Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories elaborated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), were selected to model the carbon offsetting by mortars and concretes. Finally, the existing climate change mitigation technologies available in Spain are insufficient to reach the net zero carbon footprint. Therefore, breakthrough technologies such as novel and efficient carbon dioxide capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies should be implemented by the Spanish cement industry to achieve zero carbon dioxide emissions in 2050.

As the cement industry continues to address its role in the climate crisis, Portugal’s cement industry has started to calculate its net CO₂ emissions to become an entirely carbon neutral sector. These emissions are calculated by simply subtracting the total CO₂ uptake due to mortar and concrete carbonation from the total CO₂ that is emitted during the calcination process (clinker production). However, the procedures given in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Inventories to report GHG emissions do not contain any element that would grant this calculation method the status of an internationally recognized procedure. Therefore, some climate models are not accurate because they do not account for the carbon dioxide uptake due to concrete and mortar carbonation, as is evidenced in this paper. Climate models have improved since the IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), but they can further improve by implementing carbon dioxide uptake by cement-based materials. In the present paper, a quick and easy method of evaluating net CO₂ emissions is utilized (simplified method) along with an advanced method. Portuguese net CO₂ emissions of the cement produced from 2005 to 2015 were calculated while taking carbon dioxide uptake during the service-life and end-of-life and secondary usage stages into account. Following the simplified method, 8.7 million tons of carbon dioxide were found to be uptake by mortars and concretes made with Portuguese cement over the ten-year period, in which 37.8 million tons were released due to the calcination process. In addition, an advanced method has been used to estimate the carbon dioxide uptake, which provided only slightly higher results than that of the simplified method (9.1 million tons).

The worldwide cement industry plays an important role in addressing the climate change challenge. Brazil’s cement industry currently has 91 cement plants with an installed production capacity of 94 million tons per year and has started to calculate the net CO₂ emissions to achieve a carbon-neutral cement sector by 2050. Accordingly, the carbon dioxide uptake due to mortar and concrete carbonation is subtracted from the carbon dioxide emitted by the chemical reaction for the calcination of lime, i.e., the calcination process performed during clinker production. Now-adays, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Inventories to report the GHG emissions do not include any calculation procedure to consider the mortar and concrete carbonation. However, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) recognizes the physico-chemical process known as carbonation. Brazilian net carbon dioxide emissions of cements produced from 1990 to 2019 are estimated considering the carbon dioxide uptake during the service-life and end-of-life and secondary usage stages (Tier 1). This is a fundamental scientific and technological novelty that changes the current approach to estimate the carbon dioxide emissions due to the Portland cement clinker production. Even considering the relative novelty of this approach, it should be promoted in the future and included in the national inventory report (NIR). The carbon dioxide uptake by mortar and concrete carbonation for 30 years is about 140 million tons. Within this thirty-year period about 483 million tons have been released due to the calcination process.

The increase in pig production is a key factor in the fight against climate change. The main problem is the amount of slurry which causes environmental problems, therefore optimal management is needed. This management consists of an anaerobic digestion process in which biogas is produced and a subsequent upgrading process produces biomethane. In this study, a comparison of different biomethane production systems is completed in order to determine the optimum for each pig farm, determining that conventional upgrading systems can be used on farms with more than 11,000 pigs and, for smaller numbers of pigs, the biological upgrading system. The implementation of these technologies contributes to reducing fossil energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions by using biogas and biomethane as heat, electricity or vehicle fuel.

A good understanding of historical change rates is a key requirement for effective coastal zone management and reliable predictions of shoreline evolution. Historical shoreline erosion for the coast of Guardamar del Segura (Alicante, Spain) is analyzed based on aerial photographs dating from 1930 to 2022 using the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS). This area is of special interest because the construction of a breakwater in the 1990s, which channels the mouth of the Segura River, has caused a change in coastal behavior. The prediction of future shorelines is conducted up to the year 2040 using two models based on data analysis techniques: the extrapolation of historical data (including the uncertainty of the historical measurements) and the Bruun-type model (considering the effect of sea level rises). The extrapolation of the natural erosion of the area up to 1989 is also compared with the reality, already affected by anthropic actions, in the years 2005 and 2022. The construction of the breakwater has accelerated the erosion along the coast downstream of this infrastructure by about 260%, endangering several houses that are located on the beach itself. The estimation models predict transects with erosions ranging from centimeters (±70 cm) to tens of meters (±30 m). However, both models are often overlapping, which gives a band where the shoreline may be thought to be in the future. The extrapolation of erosion up to 1989, and its subsequent comparison, shows that in most of the study areas, anthropic actions have increased erosion, reaching values of more than 35 m of shoreline loss. The effect of anthropic actions on the coast is also analyzed on the housing on the beach of Babilonia, which has lost around 17% of its built-up area in 40 years. This work demonstrates the importance of historical analysis and predictions before making any significant changes in coastal areas to develop sustainable plans for coastal area management.