Background: Lygodium microphyllum is traditionally used in Chinese medicine as a decoction to treat hepatitis. Objectives: This study evaluated the in vivo hepatoprotective efficacy and optimal dose of the ethyl acetate extract of L. microphyllum leaves (EALM) against paracetamol-induced liver injury. Methods: A pilot experiment was conducted in 24 male Wistar rats divided into six groups: a normal control group, a paracetamol control group (3 g/kg body weight [BW]), and three EALM groups (200, 400, and 600 mg/kg BW). EALM was administered orally for 14 days, and paracetamol was administered once on day 8. The evaluated parameters included body weight, serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels, and liver histopathology. Paracetamol intoxication caused significant weight loss and increased AST and ALT levels (P < 0.0001). Results: All EALM doses significantly attenuated paracetamol-induced enzyme elevations. Histopathological analysis revealed severe injury, including pyknosis, in the paracetamol group, whereas EALM-treated livers maintained near-normal morphology. Among the tested doses, 200 mg/kg BW showed the most pronounced protective effect. Conclusions: These findings indicate that EALM has significant hepatoprotective activity against paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity.

Flakes are a type of instant food product commonly consumed as a breakfast alternative, especially those labelled “low-glycaemic index” can be suitable for individuals with diabetes. Taro tubers (Colocasia esculenta L.) containing high fibre and low fat are among the raw materials that can be processed into instant food. Therefore, this study aimed to develop and determine the glycaemic index (GI) of Taro tuber flakes as an alternative processed food product for individuals with diabetes. Three distinct formulas, namely F1, F2, and F3, were developed with varying drying temperatures of 40 °C, 60 °C, and 80 °C. These were comprehensively evaluated through sensory testing (hedonic and scoring), followed by the analysis of moisture content, ash content, microbial examination, and glycaemic index. The results showed that all three developed formulas F1, F2, and F3 xhibited low glycaemic index values (below 55), along with acceptable moisture and ash content, and were free from Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhi contamination. Among them, F2, which was dried at 60 °C, showed the lowest glycaemic index value of 15.1, indicating its potential to produce a minimal postprandial blood glucose response. Furthermore, F2 received an average hedonic score of 6, which indicates favorable sensory acceptance in terms of taste, color, texture, and aroma. Therefore, F2 was selected as the most suitable formula that can be consumed as an alternative food product to help manage diabetes through low-GI dietary strategies.

Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a botanical candidate for pain management with potentially reduced opioid-related risks, partly through modulation of neuroimmune pathways involving Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4). This study aimed to characterize the phytochemical profile of kratom ethanol extract and evaluate its effects on TLR4 signalling, neuroinflammatory cytokines, analgesic activity, withdrawal behaviours, and organ safety in morphine-dependent mice. Metabolite profiling was conducted using UHPLC–Q-Exactive Orbitrap HRMS, followed by molecular docking of major constituents to the TLR4 complex. In vivo assessments included flow cytometry and gene expression analyses of TLR4-mediated cytokines (NF-κB, IL-1β, IL-6), behavioural assays for antinociception, endurance, and withdrawal symptoms, and histopathological and biochemical evaluation of liver, kidney, and spleen tissues. More than 100 metabolites were identified, including mitragynine and flavonoids such as rutin and isoquercetin, which showed interactions with key TLR4 residues. Selected fractions suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, increased tail-pinch latency comparable to morphine, reduced withdrawal manifestations, and demonstrated nephroprotective and immunomodulatory effects, although mild reversible hepatic alterations were observed in specific fractions. Overall, kratom ethanol extract exhibited fraction-dependent analgesic and anti-neuroinflammatory activities associated with TLR4 modulation, supporting its potential as a botanical analgesic candidate while emphasizing the importance of safety optimization and standardized fraction development.