The aging process significantly increases the likelihood of developing ocular diseases, most notably Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD), which is a leading cause of vision loss both in the US and globally. The development of this disease is directly driven by aging changes occurring in the retina. These include the deposition of specific deposits called drusen, structural remodeling of Bruch's membrane and the extracellular matrix, as well as inflammation and vascular dysfunction. Additionally, this process is fueled by mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress caused by an excess of free radicals (ROS), which ultimately leads to the degradation of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells. Because current methods for preventing and treating AMD are highly insufficient, researchers are continuously searching for innovative therapeutic strategies and new drug targets.

Background: Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) represents one of the most common peripheral nerve entrapment neuropathies affecting the upper limb, resulting from increased pressure within the carpal tunnel and compression of the median nerve. It is associated with numbness, pain, and hand weakness, leading to functional impairment and reduced quality of life. While conservative treatment is effective in early stages, surgical intervention remains the main option in advanced cases. Aim: The aim of this narrative review was to summarize current evidence on the diagnosis, treatment, and surgical outcomes of carpal tunnel syndrome, with particular emphasis on the effectiveness of surgical decompression and factors influencing recovery. Material and methods: A narrative review of the literature was conducted using PubMed and other peer-reviewed sources. Articles published in English between 2010 and 2026 were included, focusing on the surgical management of carpal tunnel syndrome. Results: Surgical division of the transverse carpal ligament leads to significant symptom improvement in most patients. Both open and endoscopic techniques reduce pain and improve hand function. Endoscopic approaches may allow faster recovery, whereas open procedures remain widely used and reliable. Surgical treatment is associated with sustained symptom relief and favorable long-term outcomes, particularly in moderate to severe cases. Postoperative rehabilitation and early mobilization support recovery. Conclusions: Surgical decompression is an effective treatment for patients with persistent or severe CTS, providing durable symptom relief and functional improvement. Patient selection, surgical technique, and postoperative rehabilitation are key factors influencing outcomes.

This paper provides a comprehensive review of the current state of knowledge on irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), one of the most common gastrointestinal disorders, currently classified as a disorder of gut–brain interaction (DGBI). The review discusses the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic approach, therapeutic management, and emerging research directions in IBS. The prevalence of IBS ranges from 3.8% to as high as 14% of the global population, with significant regional and sex-related differences. IBS is a multifactorial disorder involving disturbances of the gut–brain axis, visceral hypersensitivity, alterations in the gut microbiota (dysbiosis), immune dysfunction, as well as genetic, hormonal, and psychological factors. The clinical manifestations include recurrent abdominal pain, altered bowel habits (constipation-predominant, diarrhea-predominant, and mixed subtypes), abdominal bloating, and extraintestinal symptoms such as fatigue, sleep disturbances, anxiety, and depression. The diagnosis is based on the Rome IV criteria and the exclusion of organic diseases, particularly in the presence of alarm features ("red flags"). A multidisciplinary therapeutic approach includes patient education, dietary interventions (including the low-FODMAP and Mediterranean diets), probiotics, pharmacological treatment tailored to the IBS subtype, and psychological therapies such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and gut-directed hypnotherapy. Emerging therapeutic strategies include modulation of the gut microbiota through fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) and next-generation probiotics, as well as mechanism-based pharmacological agents, including elobixibat and olorinab.

Aim. To review the diagnostic value of ultrasound elastography in the assessment of focal pancreatic lesions, particularly its role in differentiating benign from malignant lesions during endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) examinations. Materials and Methods. A narrative review of published studies on ultrasound elastography techniques, including strain elastography (SE), acoustic radiation force impulse (ARFI), and shear wave elastography (SWE), was conducted. The analysis focused on elastography parameters such as strain ratio (SR), strain histogram (SH), and shear wave velocity (SWV), as well as their reported diagnostic performance in pancreatic imaging. Results. Ultrasound elastography allows non-invasive assessment of tissue stiffness, with malignant pancreatic lesions generally demonstrating higher stiffness than benign or inflammatory lesions. Studies report high sensitivity of EUS elastography for detecting malignancy (approximately 90–97%) with diagnostic accuracy around 87–89%, although specificity remains moderate. Quantitative techniques such as SWE provide more reproducible measurements than qualitative strain-based assessment. Emerging approaches combining elastography parameters with artificial intelligence and radiomic analysis show potential to further improve diagnostic accuracy. Conclusion. EUS elastography is a useful complementary technique in the evaluation of focal pancreatic lesions. Although it cannot replace biopsy due to limited specificity, it may improve lesion characterisation and help target the most suspicious areas for tissue sampling. Future integration with artificial intelligence may further enhance diagnostic performance.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common and serious chronic complications of diabetes mellitus, representing the leading cause of vision loss among working-age adults. The disease results from prolonged hyperglycemia, which leads to damage of the retinal microvasculature, causing endothelial dysfunction, increased vascular permeability, ischemia, and subsequent pathological neovascularization. Two main stages of DR are distinguished — non-proliferative (NPDR) and proliferative (PDR) — reflecting the progressive severity of vascular alterations within the retina. Early stages of the disease are often asymptomatic, making regular ophthalmic screening and advanced imaging techniques, such as optical coherence tomography (OCT) and fluorescein angiography, essential for early detection. Management of diabetic retinopathy includes both systemic metabolic control (maintaining optimal blood glucose, blood pressure, and lipid levels) and local treatments, such as laser photocoagulation, intravitreal injections of VEGF inhibitors or corticosteroids. In advanced cases, vitrectomy may be required. Despite significant progress in diagnosis and therapy, DR remains a major public health concern, requiring close collaboration between diabetologists, ophthalmologists, and patients. This review summarizes the current understanding of the pathogenesis, classification, diagnostic methods, and treatment strategies for diabetic retinopathy, with particular emphasis on recent research directions and potential innovative therapeutic approaches.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is the leading cause of global chronic liver disease, with a prevalence of approximately 30%. This review outlines the diagnostic transition from the exclusionary non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) framework to the affirmative MASLD nomenclature, which mandates the presence of at least one of five specific cardiometabolic risk factors (CMRFs) to prioritize active pathophysiology. Beyond hepatic complications, MASLD drives systemic metabolic failure, significantly elevating risks for type 2 diabetes, hepatocellular carcinoma, and cardiovascular disease, the primary cause of mortality in this cohort. Clinical management relies on a standardized, two-tier risk-stratification pathway for advanced fibrosis. Primary care triage utilizes the Fibrosis–4 (FIB–4) index; a score < 1.3 excludes advanced disease via a high negative predictive value, whereas indeterminate or high scores require secondary validation via vibration-controlled transient elastography (VCTE) or the enhanced liver fibrosis (ELF) test to guide specialist referral. Although lifestyle modifications, principally a 7–10% weight reduction and Mediterranean diet adherence, remain foundational, management has transitioned toward disease-modifying pharmacotherapies. A pivotal breakthrough occurred with the 2024 FDA approval of resmetirom, a selective thyroid hormone receptor-beta (THR-β) agonist, for non-cirrhotic metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) with moderate-to-advanced fibrosis. Concurrently, the emergence of GLP-1 receptor agonists and multi-incretin mimetics offers a personalized, multi-target approach simultaneously addressing hepatic inflammation, glycemic control, and adiposity.